Chapter 2

Preview
• Objectives
• Scientific Method
• Observing and Collecting Data
• Formulating Hypotheses
• Testing Hypotheses
• Theorizing
• Scientific Method
 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Objectives

• Describe the purpose of the scientific method.

• Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative

observations.

• Describe the differences between hypotheses, theories,

and models.

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 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Scientific Method

• The scientific method is a logical approach to solving

problems by observing and collecting data, formulating
hypotheses, testing hypotheses, and formulating theories
that are supported by data.
 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Scientific Method

The most basic steps are as follows:

1.Make observations.
2.Ask a question.
3.Form a hypothesis.
4.Test the hypothesis.
5.Analyze the results.
6.Draw conclusions.
7.Communicate the results.
 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Observing and Collecting Data

• Observing is the use of the senses to obtain information.

• data may be
• qualitative (descriptive)
•is data that describes the qualities of a material, such as
color or texture.
• quantitative (numerical)
•is data taken regarding magnitude, size or amount of
something. It deals with measurable quantities.
 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Qualitative and Quantitative Data

•A system is a specific portion of matter in a given

region of space that has been selected for study
during an experiment or observation.
 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Formulating Hypotheses

• Scientists make generalizations based on the data.

• Scientists use generalizations about the data to formulate a

hypothesis, or testable statement.
• Hypotheses are often “if-then” statements.
 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Formulating Hypotheses
 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a theory or explanation that is based

on observations and that can be tested.
 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Testing Hypotheses

• Testing a hypothesis requires experimentation that provides

data to support or refute a hypothesis or theory.

• Controls are the experimental conditions that remain

constant.

• Variables are any experimental conditions that change.

 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Theorizing
• A model in science is more than a physical object; it is
often an explanation of how phenomena occur and how
data or events are related.
• visual, verbal, or mathematical
• example: atomic model of matter

• A theory is a broad generalization that explains a body of

facts or phenomena.
• example: atomic theory
 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Models

A model is a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed

to show the structure or workings of an object, system, or concept.

Visual Concept
 Section 1 Scientific Method
Chapter 2

Scientific Method
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Preview
• Lesson Starter
• Objectives
• Units of Measurement
• SI Measurement
• SI Base Units
• Derived SI Units
• Conversion Factors
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Lesson Starter
• Would you be breaking the speed limit in a 40 mi/h
zone if you were traveling at 60 km/h?

• one kilometer = 0.62 miles

• 60 km/h = 37.2 mi/h

• You would not be speeding!

• km/h and mi/h measure the same quantity using

different units
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Objectives
• Distinguish between a quantity, a unit, and a
measurement standard.

• Name and use SI units for length, mass, time,

volume, and density.

• Distinguish between mass and weight.

• Perform density calculations.

• Transform a statement of equality into a

conversion factor.
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Units of Measurement
• Measurements represent quantities.

• A quantity is something that has magnitude, size, or

amount.

• measurement  quantity
• the teaspoon is a unit of measurement
• volume is a quantity

• The choice of unit depends on the quantity being

measured.
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

SI Measurement
• Scientists all over the world have agreed on a single
measurement system called Le Système International
d’Unités, abbreviated SI.

• SI has seven base units

• most other units are derived from these seven

 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

SI (Le Systéme International d´Unités)

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 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

SI Base Units
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

SI Base Units
Mass

• Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter.

• The SI standard unit for mass is the kilogram.

• Weight is a measure of the gravitational pull on

matter.

• Mass does not depend on gravity.

 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

SI Base Units
Length

• Length is a measure of distance.

• The SI standard for length is the meter.

• The kilometer, km, is used to express longer

distances

• The centimeter, cm, is used to express shorter

distances
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Derived SI Units
• Combinations of SI base units form derived units.
• pressure is measured in kg/m•s2, or pascals
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Derived SI Units, continued

Volume

• Volume is the amount of space occupied by an

object.

• The derived SI unit is cubic meters, m3

• The cubic centimeter, cm3, is often used
• The liter, L, is a non-SI unit
• 1 L = 1000 cm3
• 1 mL = 1 cm3
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Volume

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 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Measuring the Volume of Liquids

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 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Derived SI Units, continued

Density

• Density is the ratio of mass to volume, or mass

divided by volume.
mass m
density = or D =
volume V
• The derived SI unit is kilograms per cubic meter,
kg/m3
• g/cm3 or g/mL are also used
• Density is a characteristic physical property of a
substance.
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Derived SI Units, continued

Density
• Density can be used as one property to help identify a
substance
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Equation for Density

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 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Derived SI Units, continued

Sample Problem A
A sample of aluminum metal has a mass of
8.4 g. The volume of the sample is 3.1 cm3. Calculate
the density of aluminum.
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Derived SI Units, continued

Sample Problem A Solution

Given: mass (m) = 8.4 g

volume (V) = 3.1 cm3

Unknown: density (D)

Solution:

mass 8.4 g 3
density =   2. 7 g / cm
volume 3.1 cm3
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Conversion Factors

• A conversion factor is a ratio derived from the

equality between two different units that can be used
to convert from one unit to the other.
• example: How quarters and dollars are related

4 quarters 1 dollar
1 1
1 dollar 4 quarters

0.25 dollar 1 quarter

1 1
1 quarters 0.25 dollar
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Conversion Factor

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 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Conversion Factors, continued

• Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique

that allows you to use units to solve problems
involving measurements.

• quantity sought = quantity given × conversion factor

• example: the number of quarters in 12 dollars
number of quarters = 12 dollars × conversion factor
4 quarter
? quarters 12 dollars  48 quarters
1 dollar
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Using Conversion Factors

 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Conversion Factors, continued

Deriving Conversion Factors

• You can derive conversion factors if you know the

relationship between the unit you have and the unit
you want.

• example: conversion factors for meters and

decimeters

1m 0.1 m 10 dm
10 dm dm m
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

SI Conversions
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Conversion Factors, continued

Sample Problem B
Express a mass of 5.712 grams in milligrams and in kilograms.
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Conversion Factors, continued

Sample Problem B Solution
Express a mass of 5.712 grams in milligrams and in kilograms.

Given: 5.712 g
Unknown: mass in mg and kg
Solution: mg
1 g = 1000 mg

1000 mg 1g
Possible conversion factors: and
g 1000 mg

1000 mg
5.712 g   5712 mg
g
 Section 2 Units of Measurement
Chapter 2

Conversion Factors, continued

Sample Problem B Solution, continued
Express a mass of 5.712 grams in milligrams and in kilograms.

Given: 5.712 g
Unknown: mass in mg and kg
Solution: kg
1 000 g = 1 kg

1000 g 1 kg
Possible conversion factors: and
kg 1000 g

1 kg
5.712 g   0.005712 kg
1000 g
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Preview
• Lesson Starter
• Objectives
• Accuracy and Precision
• Significant Figures
• Scientific Notation
• Using Sample Problems
• Direct Proportions
• Inverse Proportions
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Lesson Starter

• Look at the specifications for electronic balances.

How do the instruments vary in precision?

• Discuss using a beaker to measure volume versus

using a graduated cylinder. Which is more precise?
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Objectives
• Distinguish between accuracy and precision.

• Determine the number of significant figures in

measurements.

• Perform mathematical operations involving

significant figures.

• Convert measurements into scientific notation.

• Distinguish between inversely and directly

proportional relationships.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Accuracy and Precision

• Accuracy refers to the closeness of measurements
to the correct or accepted value of the quantity
measured.

• Precision refers to the closeness of a set of

measurements of the same quantity made in the
same way.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Accuracy and Precision

 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Accuracy and Precision

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 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Accuracy and Precision, continued

Percentage Error
• Percentage error is calculated by subtracting the
accepted value from the experimental value, dividing
the difference by the accepted value, and then
multiplying by 100.

Valueexperimental -Valueaccepted
Percentage error = × 100
Valueaccepted
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Accuracy and Precision, continued

Sample Problem C
A student measures the mass and volume of a
substance and calculates its density as 1.40 g/mL. The
correct, or accepted, value of the density is 1.30 g/mL.
What is the percentage error of the student’s
measurement?
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Accuracy and Precision, continued

Sample Problem C Solution

1.40 g / mL - 1.30 g / mL
  100 7.7%
1.30 g / mL
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Accuracy and Precision, continued

Error in Measurement
• Some error or uncertainty always exists in any
measurement.

• skill of the measurer

• conditions of measurement
• measuring instruments
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Significant Figures

• Significant figures in a measurement consist of all

the digits known with certainty plus one final digit,
which is somewhat uncertain or is estimated.

• The term significant does not mean certain.

 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Reporting
Measurements
Using Significant
Figures
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Significant Figures, continued

Determining the Number of Significant Figures
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Rules for Determining Significant Zeros

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 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Significant Figures, continued

Sample Problem D
How many significant figures are in each of the
following measurements?

a. 28.6 g
b. 3440. cm
c. 910 m
d. 0.046 04 L
e. 0.006 700 0 kg
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Significant Figures, continued

Sample Problem D Solution
a. 28.6 g
There are no zeros, so all three digits are significant.

b. 3440. cm
By rule 4, the zero is significant because it is
immediately followed by a decimal point; there are 4
significant figures.

c. 910 m
By rule 4, the zero is not significant; there are 2
significant figures.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Significant Figures, continued

Sample Problem D Solution, continued

d. 0.046 04 L
By rule 2, the first two zeros are not significant; by
rule 1, the third zero is significant; there are 4
significant figures.

e. 0.006 700 0 kg
By rule 2, the first three zeros are not significant;
by rule 3, the last three zeros are significant; there
are 5 significant figures.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Significant Figures, continued

Rounding
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Rules for Rounding Numbers

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 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Significant Figures, continued

Addition or Subtraction with Significant Figures
• When adding or subtracting decimals, the answer
must have the same number of digits to the right of
the decimal point as there are in the measurement
having the fewest digits to the right of the decimal
point.
Addition or Subtraction with Significant Figures
• For multiplication or division, the answer can have
no more significant figures than are in the
measurement with the fewest number of significant
figures.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Significant Figures, continued

Sample Problem E
Carry out the following calculations. Express
each answer to the correct number of significant
figures.

a. 5.44 m - 2.6103 m

b. 2.4 g/mL  15.82 mL

 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Significant Figures, continued

Sample Problem E Solution

a. 5.44 m - 2.6103 m = 2.84 m

There should be two digits to the right of the decimal

point, to match 5.44 m.

b. 2.4 g/mL  15.82 mL = 38 g

There should be two significant figures in the answer,

to match 2.4 g/mL.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Significant Figures, continued

Conversion Factors and Significant Figures
• There is no uncertainty exact conversion factors.

• Most exact conversion factors are defined

quantities.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Scientific Notation

• In scientific notation, numbers are written in the

form M × 10n, where the factor M is a number greater
than or equal to 1 but less than 10 and n is a whole
number.

• example: 0.000 12 mm = 1.2 × 10−4 mm

• Move the decimal point four places to the

right and multiply the number by 10−4.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Scientific Notation, continued

1. Determine M by moving the decimal point in the

original number to the left or the right so that only
one nonzero digit remains to the left of the decimal
point.

2. Determine n by counting the number of places that

you moved the decimal point. If you moved it to the
left, n is positive. If you moved it to the right, n is
negative.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Scientific Notation, continued

Mathematical Operations Using Scientific Notation
1. Addition and subtraction —These operations can be
performed only if the values have the same
exponent (n factor).

example: 4.2 × 104 kg + 7.9 × 103 kg

or
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Scientific Notation, continued

Mathematical Operations Using Scientific Notation
2. Multiplication —The M factors are multiplied, and the
exponents are added algebraically.

example: (5.23 × 106 µm)(7.1 × 10−2 µm)

= (5.23 × 7.1)(106 × 10−2)

= 37.133 × 104 µm2

= 3.7 × 105 µm2

 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Scientific Notation, continued

Mathematical Operations Using Scientific Notation
3. Division — The M factors are divided, and the
exponent of the denominator is subtracted from that
of the numerator.
5.44  107 g
example:
8.1  10 4 mol
5.44
=  107-4 g / mol
8.1
= 0.6716049383 × 103
= 6.7  102 g/mol
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Scientific Notation

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 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Using Sample Problems

• Analyze
The first step in solving a quantitative word
problem is to read the problem carefully at least
twice and to analyze the information in it.

• Plan
The second step is to develop a plan for solving
the problem.
• Compute
The third step involves substituting the data and
necessary conversion factors into the plan you
have developed.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Using Sample Problems, continued

• Evaluate
Examine your answer to determine whether it is
reasonable.
1. Check to see that the units are correct.
2. Make an estimate of the expected answer.
3. Check the order of magnitude in your answer.
4. Be sure that the answer given for any problem
is expressed using the correct number of
significant figures.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Using Sample Problems, continued

Sample Problem F
Calculate the volume of a sample of aluminum
that has a mass of 3.057 kg. The density of
aluminum is 2.70 g/cm3.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Using Sample Problems, continued

Sample Problem F Solution
1. Analyze
Given: mass = 3.057 kg, density = 2.70 g/cm3
Unknown: volume of aluminum

2. Plan
The density unit is g/cm3, and the mass unit is kg.
conversion factor: 1000 g = 1 kg
Rearrange the density equation to solve for volume.
m m
D=  V=
V D
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Using Sample Problems, continued

Sample Problem F Solution, continued
3. Compute
3.057 kg 1000 g
V  3

2.70 g / cm kg

= 1132.222 . . . cm3 (calculator answer)

round answer to three significant figures

V = 1.13 × 103 cm3

 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Using Sample Problems, continued

Sample Problem F Solution, continued
4. Evaluate
Answer: V = 1.13 × 103 cm3
• The unit of volume, cm3, is correct.
• An order-of-magnitude estimate would put the
answer at over 1000 cm3.
3
1000
2
• The correct number of significant figures is three,
which matches that in 2.70 g/cm.
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Direct Proportions

• Two quantities are directly proportional to each

other if dividing one by the other gives a constant
value.

• yx

• read as “y is proportional to x.”

 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Direct Proportion
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Inverse Proportions

• Two quantities are inversely proportional to each

other if their product is constant.

1
• y 
x

• read as “y is proportional to 1 divided by x.”

 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Inverse Proportion
 Section 3 Using Scientific
Chapter 2 Measurements

Direct and Inverse Proportions

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End of Chapter 2 Show