THE ATMOSPHERE

Chapter 7
The Earth's atmosphere is composed of a blanket
of gases and protects us from the blasts of heat
and radiation coming from the Sun. The air that we
breathe consists of different gases.
Chemical Nature of Gases in Air:
1. The composition of dry air (air without water) includes nitrogen
(the solvent) and oxygen (the solute) only. Dry air contains up to
78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% trace gases.
a. Oxygen is soluble in water and is found in the atmosphere,
lithosphere, and hydrosphere. Oxygen is needed for breathing
and supports combustion.
b. Nitrogen in the air is relatively inert (nonreactive
gases); it dilutes oxygen concentration in the air;
nitrogen can split into reactive chemical species
called radicals. Free radical means a single
unpaired electron is present in its molecule.
N2 heat N* + N*
This splitting can be done by lightning or when N 2 is near a very
high- temperature environment, e.g. engines of SSTs (supersonic
transport aircraft that travel faster than sound).
c. Trace gases account for about one percent of the
atmosphere. These gases include argon (0.90%) and
0.1% accounts for the following: carbon dioxide
(0.09349%), neon (0.004675%), helium (0.001299%),
methane (0.000442%) nitrous oxide (0.000078%), ozone
(0.000010%) and other gases produced by human
activities.
The composition of dry air is relatively constant in
different locations, but the amounts of trace gases
change.
2. The amount of water vapor in air varies with
location from 0-4%. In the cold, dry arctic region,
water vapor can account for less than 1% of the
atmosphere, while in humid, tropical regions, water
vapor can account for almost 4% of the
atmosphere.
Water molecules keep the temperature of the Earth's
surface suitable for life forms. It absorbs excess
heat during evaporation and releases heat during
condensation.
The Atmosphere and Energy Balance:
1.The Earth’s atmosphere can be thought of as a heat engine powered
by the Sun. When the Sun heats a given gas molecule at the Earth's
surface, the gas molecule rises adiabatically to the atmosphere's outer
layer. Our gas molecules will then cool off at constant pressure, and it
will sink to the Earth's surface. The cycle repeats.

2. The energy balance is the balance between the incoming energy

from the Sun and outgoing energy from the Earth. The Sun released
energy and emitted as ultra-violet energy and shortwave light. Once it
reaches the Earth, some are reflected back to space by clouds, some
are absorbed by the atmosphere, and some are absorbed in the
Earth's surface.
The Earth radiates energy much weaker compared to the Sun. We can
see this energy (heat) radiates in the atmosphere indirectly, such as
rising from a hot road and creating shimmers on hot sunny days.
The Atmosphere and Energy Balance:

The Earth maintains a stable temperature and climate when

the energy is balanced between the Earth and the Sun. It is
achieved when the energy received from the Sun balances the
energy lost by the Earth back into space.

To give you an idea of what the atmosphere's layers actually

consist of, watch this video at the link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KXf39bQH6iE.
Layers of the Atmosphere determined by the Changes in Temperature
with Increasing Altitude
1.The TROPOSPHERE
∙The lowest zone up to about 12 km from the sea
∙Where the concentration of air molecules is high
∙Where convection occurs (hot air rises, cold air sinks). Hot air near the
Earth's surface rises, cold air rushes in to replace the space vacated by the
rising air.
∙Where there is horizontal and vertical mixing of particles and gases
∙Weather elements are present in this region that causes weather
phenomena. These weather elements are pressure, temperature, humidity,
clouds, and wind.
∙Where local air pollution is observed.
∙Where the temperature decreases as altitude increases. The ground radiates
back to space some of the energy received from the Sun but in the form of
infrared light.
∙Most clouds appear here because 99% of the water vapor is in this region.
Layers of the Atmosphere determined by the Changes in
Temperature with Increasing Altitude

2. The STRATOSPHERE

•The zone that extends to about 50 km above the ground

•Where turbulence is very low or none at all due to low air mass
in this region, thereby less air movement.
•Where the ozone layer is located.
•Where the temperature gets warmer from -50 to 0oC. The
temperature is much higher in this portion of the stratosphere,
where a high ozone concentration is found. At this position,
ozone and oxygen molecules absorb harmful UV radiation with
wavelengths 200-300 nm and converting UV energy into heat
•Where the temperature begins to rise with altitude
Layers of the Atmosphere determined by the Changes in
Temperature with Increasing Altitude

3. The MESOSPHERE
•The region between 50 to 90 km above the ground
•Where ions start to form due to the effect of UV radiation
•Where the temperature starts to decrease and can reach up
to -90oC as altitude increases.
•Most meteors burn up in this region
•In outer space, most particles consist of single atoms, H, He,
O, etc. At lower altitude (200 - 100 km), diatomic molecules N 2,
O2, NO, etc. are present. The ionosphere is full of electrically
charged ions.
Layers of the Atmosphere determined by the Changes in
Temperature with Increasing Altitude

4. The THERMOSPHERE

• The region above 90 km from the Earth's surface

• Where air molecules are too thin to breathe.
• More ions are formed because of cosmic radiation.
• This region heats up to 1500oC or higher.
• It is where the space shuttle orbit
• Auroras, northern and southern lights occur in this region.
The IONOSPHERE is not a distinct layer of the
atmosphere. It is a series of regions in parts of
the mesosphere and thermosphere containing
charged particles due to UV and cosmic
radiation. This layer is important to long-
distance communication because they reflect
radio waves.
Layers of the Atmosphere determined by the Changes in
Temperature with Increasing Altitude

4. The EXOSPHERE
•The exosphere is the outermost layer of earth’s atmosphere.
•This layer start at 500 km above the earth’s surface and goes about
10000 Km.
•The air is extremely thin in exosphere.
•This layer starts at 500 km above the Earths’ surface, about 6,200
miles thick and goes about 10k kilometers.
•This layer is filled by gases like hydrogen and helium and these are
very spread out , it is no air to breathe and temperature is very cold.
•This layer is perfect for placing satellites because due to thin air,
satellites can orbit with out any friction or disruption.
Temperature Changes in the Atmosphere
•At very high altitudes, oxygen and nitrogen absorb high energy radiation
with wavelengths less than 200 nm. The radiant energy is converted to
heat, causing the temperature of the atmosphere to become high.
•The temperature falls as the altitude decreases to above 85 km because
the high energy radiation has been absorbed higher up. Oxygen and
nitrogen absorb very little of the low energy radiation.
•Below 85 km, the ozone concentration increases. It is at its highest peak
of about 25 km. Ozone absorbs radiation with a wavelength between 180
to 3000 nm. The atmosphere is hot at this layer.
•Below 50 km, most of the radiation in the 180-300 range has been
absorbed; the temperature goes down.
•The light energy that reaches the Earth's surface is eventually reflected
back into the atmosphere in the form of infrared light. Some of these are
absorbed by carbon dioxide and water, causing a warm zone near the
ground.
Chemical Changes that Affect Us Locally and Globally

1. Ozone Depletion. Ozone in the stratosphere absorbs UV

radiation. Without it, high energy radiation can reach Earth's
surface and harm plants and animals. O3 is toxic above 3 ppm.
The formation and destruction of ozone in the stratosphere is a
natural process. Depletion occurs when the rate of destruction is
faster than the rate of formation.

Formation of ozone:
O2 + O + UV→O3
Destruction of ozone:
O3→O2 + O
Depletion of the Ozone layer may be caused by the following:
a. Polyhalogenated hydrocarbons or CFCs
(Chlorofluorocarbon) cause thinning of the ozone layer.
These CFCs are commonly used as refrigerants or
propellants.
Though CFCs have many uses because they are relatively
nontoxic, nonflammable, and do not decompose easily,
Montreal Protocol regulates CFCs' use. In 1996, a new
regulation finally banned the use of CFCs. Ozone-friendly
products that do not contain chlorine and have a short life
span (hydrofluorocarbons or hydrochlorofluorocarbons|)
replace CFCs.
 Ozone Depletion

Source: BioNInja

The CFCs in the troposphere migrate slowly to the stratosphere. At an altitude above 25
km, intense UV radiation breaks down the CFCs causing them to release Cl*. Cl*is a free
radical that is very reactive. One Cl* can destroy one million ozone molecules. The ozone
hole is an area in the stratosphere that contains only very few ozone molecules. There are
no holes in the atmosphere because gases spread in all directions.
To fully understand this phenomenon, watch the video at the link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aU6pxSNDPhs
Chemical Changes that Affect Us Locally and Globally
2. Global warming is caused by the build-up of gases like carbon dioxide,
methane, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxides, and ozone in the atmosphere.
a. The CO2 level in the atmosphere is about 355 ppm (0.035%). CO2 is
responsible for about 55% of the global warming problem. The primary sources
of CO2 are the burning of fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas. Destruction of
forests enhances global warming.
b. CH4 is responsible for about 15% of the warming. It is the gas produced by
bacteria in cattle and sheep's digestive systems and during the biological decay
in rice fields, marshes, and dumpsites.
c. CFCs are responsible for about 6-10% of the global problem. They also
destroy the ozone layer.
d. NO accounts for about 6-10% of the problem. It is formed by microbes and
released when chemical fertilizers are broken down into simple compounds and
by the burning of wood and fossil fuels.
e. O3 produced in the troposphere comes from ground-based pollution such as in
motor vehicles, electric power plants, factories, and oil refineries.
These gases above are called greenhouse gases for these gases
that contribute to the global warming of the atmosphere. They
absorb heat radiated by the Earth. A 2-3 oC rise in temperature may
result in the melting of polar ice caps and flooding of low lying
coastal areas. A drastic change in the Earth's climate will affect rice-
growing areas and food production.

Natural gases usually warm the Earth in the atmosphere (e.g., CO 2,

CH4, NO). These gases form a blanket that allows sunlight to pass
through and reach the Earth's surface but prevents heat from
escaping. This phenomenon is often known as the greenhouse
effect (the gases acting like glass in the greenhouse). The gas
blanket traps heat close to the Earth's surface and warms the
atmosphere.
Chemical Changes that Affect Us Locally and Globally
3. Acid Rain. The acidity of normal rainfall is about pH 5.6 to 6.9 due to
carbon dioxide in the air. It is due to the reaction,
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3-
Carbon dioxide + Water = Bicarbonates
The acidity of rain in many industrialized countries is due to one or more
of the following reactions:
Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form sulfurous acid.
SO2(g) + H2O(l) -> H2SO3(aq)
sulfur dioxide + water = Sulfurous acid
Substances in the upper atmosphere then catalyze the reaction between
sulfurous acid and oxygen to form sulfuric acid.
2H2SO3(aq) + O2(g) -> 2H2SO4(aq)
sulfurous acid + Oxygen = Sulfuric acid
Similarly, nitrogen dioxide reacts with water to form a mixture of nitric acid
and nitrous acid.
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) -> HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
Air pollution is an indication of disturbances in the
composition of compounds in the atmosphere. It
includes the excessive emission of gases, a
saturation of particulate, and the appearance of
new chemical reactions in the atmosphere. These
are called pollutants because they produce harmful
effects on life forms. Pollutants come from various
sources and have different properties; their impact
on people and the physical environment also vary.
Sources of Air Pollution
1. Natural sources
∙All air contains natural contaminants such as pollen, fungi
spores, smoke, and dust particles from forest fires and
volcanic eruptions.
Volcanic eruption – H2S, SO2, CO dust, and ashes
Decaying plants and animals – CH4, NH3, H2S
Forest and grass fires – smoke, CO, and CO 2
Lightning- N2O, NO, and NO2
2. Anthropogenic/ Man-made sources
∙Pollutants are also emitted to the atmosphere through
human activities like burning fossil fuels in motor vehicles,
electric generating plants, and factories. The pollutants
include SOx, NOx, CO, CO2, and particulates.
Types of Air Pollutants
1. Primary Pollutants
∙are the emissions directly produced from natural and man-
made activities.
∙It includes sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon
monoxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and
particulate matter (dust, ash, and other tiny particles).

2. Secondary Pollutants
∙Secondary pollutants are the results of chemical reaction
between primary pollutants in the presence of sunlight.
∙It includes sulfuric acid (H2SO4), ozone (O3), peroxyacetyl
nitrate (PAN), and other particulates that may also be
included.
Effects of Air pollutants
1. Sulfur Dioxides are irritating to the eyes and
respiratory system, when it mixes with tears
and the moist nostrils and throat, SO2 can be
converted to SO3 and react with water to form
acid rain
2. Nitrogen oxides, NO2, are soluble in water.
NO2 reacts with other pollutants in the
presence of sunlight to produce photochemical
smog. Photochemical smog happens when
nitrogen oxides and volatile organic Photochemical smog
Source: worldatlas.com

compounds react together in the presence of

sunlight as a catalyst and form ozone at zero
levels.
Effects of Air pollutants …

Photochemical smog can be seen as a visible brown haze and is most prominent
during the morning and afternoon, especially in densely populated warm cities.
The toxic chemicals formed in a photochemical smog can irritate nasal passages and
eyes and aggravate breathing problems. The smog's acidic nature can also cause
environmental damage, and the toxins created by the reactions are carcinogenic.

3. Ozone is abundant in the stratosphere because of the presence of oxygen

molecules and atoms which are highly energized. They easily combine to form ozone:
O2 + O + UV→O3

Ozone absorbs high energy radiation: this energy is partly released by the highly
energetic ozone molecules. O3 is a very reactive form of oxygen that is a more
powerful oxidizing agent than O2. It is an irritating bluish gas of pungent odor and is a
carcinogen, cancer-causing substance. It is a major pollutant in the lower atmosphere
but a beneficial component of the upper atmosphere.
Effects of Air pollutants …
5. Particulates are liquid or small particles. They are airborne. Pb particulates mainly
come from the burning of leaded gasoline. Pb particles are believed to affect the
nervous system and are carcinogenic.

6. Methane, CH4, is a colorless and odorless gas. It is a good heat absorber.

7. Carbon dioxide is not usually a pollutant. When its concentration in the

atmosphere is high, it absorbs lots of heat. It is a major gas that causes global
warming.

8. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is naturally toxic, even at low concentrations. It can be

converted into SO2 in the air.
H2S + O2→ SO2 + H2

9. Hydrocarbons (HCs) in the air are poisonous. They can mix with other gases to
produce photochemical smog.
Dealing with air pollution is something that everyone needs to get
involved. We have the responsibility, if not in maintaining clean air, to at
least reduce the damage that may be posed to air quality. Each of us can
contribute and promote awareness in helping combat the crisis on air
pollution.
Pollution control can be done through the following.

a. The use of pollution control devices. There are two main

categories of air pollution control devices to control and reduce
air pollution. These devices can either destroy the contaminants
or remove them from an exhaust stream before it is emitted into
the atmosphere. Examples are:
1. Particulate Control includes fabric filtration,
Electrostatic precipitators (ESP); inertial separators, water
scrubbing devices, and ceramic filters.
2. Gaseous Control includes Bio-filtration, Chemical
scrubbing devices, and Adsorption (e.g. carbon adsorption).
b. Strict enforcement of anti-pollution laws
Republic Act 8749 or known as the Clean Air Act of 1999 was implemented with
the principle “polluters must pay”. It focuses on pollution prevention rather than on
control by encouraging cooperation and self-regulation among citizens and
industries. It also enforces a system of accountability for adverse environmental
impacts to heighten compliance with government environmental regulations.

The Clean Air Act follows the following guidelines to fight air pollution:
∙Reducing emissions from motor vehicles (which account for 80 percent of the air
pollution) from factories and power plants (which account for the remaining 20
percent);
∙Improving fuel quality to reduce or eliminate lead in gasoline and sulfur in diesel;
∙Reducing traffic congestion and improving traffic flow;
∙Strengthening quality monitoring, evaluation, and reporting through hi-tech
equipment; and
∙Preventing other sources of pollution such as incinerators, garbage burning, and
smoking
c. Use of Bioremediation. It is a process that uses organisms
(microorganisms, algae, and plants) to clean up pollution. Biofiltration
is a proven technology and the only biological technique currently
available and a suitable option for dealing with volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). Also, the use of plants in the process called
phytoremediation is used in purifying the air.
Moreover, here are a few things you can do to help. Learning about
the issue (like you are doing) is the greatest and most important step
to take. You Can Help by
✔Conserve energy at home, at work, everywhere.
✔Carpool, use public transportation, bike, or walk whenever possible.
✔Use cleaner fuels.
✔Use environmentally safe cleaning products whenever possible.
✔Compost leaves and yard waste.
phytoremediation

In the Philippines, they used a plant called jatropha to rehabilitate pollutants in

metal-filled land as in an abandoned mine site in Mogpog, Marinduque. Jatropha
is also one of the best plants for developing biofuels, is resistant to droughts and
pests, and produces seeds containing 27-40% oil.
Source: ZME Science
Source: ZME Science