DATA STRUCTURES AND ALGORITHM

Summer Training

Under The Guidance of

Mr. Shreyansh Sinha
Introduction to Data Structures and Algorithms
1 Organization and Storage 2 Problem-Solving
Data structures are a way to organize and store data efficiently. Algorithms are a set of instructions or rules that specify how to
They provide a blueprint for how data is arranged in memory, solve a problem. They provide a systematic approach to tackle
allowing for effective manipulation and retrieval. computational tasks.

3 Efficiency and Performance 4 Real-world Applications

Data structures and algorithms are critical for optimizing These concepts are used in a wide range of applications, from
program performance. By choosing the right data structures databases and search engines to machine learning and artificial
and algorithms, you can minimize memory usage and intelligence.
execution time.
Arrays
Concept Operations Time Complexity

An array is a linear data structure Common array operations include Access, insertion, and deletion
that stores a collection of elements insertion, deletion, searching, operations generally have a time
of the same data type. It allows for traversal, and sorting. These complexity of O(1) when the index is
efficient access to elements using operations can be implemented known. Searching and sorting
their index. using various algorithms with operations typically have a
different time and space complexity of O(n) for linear search
complexities. and O(n log n) for efficient sorting
algorithms like merge sort.
Singly Linked List
Concept Operations Time Complexity

A singly linked list is a linear Operations include insertion, Insertion and deletion at the
data structure where each deletion, searching, and beginning have a time
element (node) stores data traversal. Insertion and complexity of O(1). Traversal
and a pointer to the next node deletion at the beginning and searching have a time
in the sequence. require updating the head complexity of O(n).
pointer.
Doubly Linked List
Concept Operations Time Complexity
A doubly linked list is similar to a Common operations include Insertion and deletion operations
singly linked list, but each node has insertion, deletion, searching, and typically have a time complexity of
pointers to both the next and traversal. These operations can be O(1). Traversal and searching have a
previous nodes in the sequence, performed with a higher level of time complexity of O(n).
allowing for efficient traversal in efficiency compared to singly linked
both directions. lists.
Stack
Concept Operations
A stack is a linear data structure that follows the Last-In, Common operations include push (adding an element), pop
First-Out (LIFO) principle. Elements are added (pushed) and (removing an element), peek (accessing the top element),
removed (popped) from the top of the stack. and isEmpty (checking if the stack is empty).

Time Complexity Applications

All stack operations, including push, pop, peek, and isEmpty, Stacks are used in various applications, such as function call
have a time complexity of O(1). stacks, undo/redo functionality, and expression evaluation.
Queue
1 Concept
A queue is a linear data structure that follows the First-In, First-
Out (FIFO) principle. Elements are added (enqueued) at the rear
and removed (dequeued) from the front.

2 Operations
Common operations include enqueue (adding an element),
dequeue (removing an element), peek (accessing the front
element), and isEmpty (checking if the queue is empty).

3 Time Complexity
Enqueue and dequeue operations typically have a time
complexity of O(1). Peek and isEmpty operations also have a
time complexity of O(1).
Searching Algorithms

Linear Search
Linear search is a simple algorithm that sequentially checks
each element in a list or array until the target element is
found. It has a time complexity of O(n) in the worst case.

Binary Search
Binary search is an efficient algorithm that works on sorted
lists. It repeatedly divides the search interval in half until the
target element is found. It has a time complexity of O(log n).

Hash Table Search

A hash table uses a hash function to map keys to indices in
an array. Searching in a hash table is typically very fast, with
an average time complexity of O(1).
Sorting Algorithms

Algorithm Time Complexity Time Complexity Time Complexity Space Complexity

(Best) (Average) (Worst)

Bubble Sort O(n) O(n^2) O(n^2) O(1)

Insertion Sort O(n) O(n^2) O(n^2) O(1)

Merge Sort O(n log n) O(n log n) O(n log n) O(n)

Quick Sort O(n log n) O(n log n) O(n^2) O(log n)

Bubble Sort
1 Concept 2 Implementation
Bubble sort is a simple Bubble sort is relatively
sorting algorithm that easy to implement, but it is
repeatedly steps through not efficient for large lists.
the list, compares adjacent For a list of n elements, it
elements, and swaps them requires n-1 passes.
if they are in the wrong
order. It has a time
complexity of O(n^2).

3 Advantages 4 Disadvantages
Simple to understand and Inefficient for large lists,
implement. high time complexity, and
not practical for real-world
applications.
Bubble Sort: A Simple Sorting Algorithm
Bubble Sort is a simple sorting algorithm that repeatedly steps through the list, compares adjacent elements, and swaps
them if they are in the wrong order. It iterates through the list until all elements are sorted.

1 Concept 2 Types
A simple sorting algorithm that compares adjacent There are variations such as optimized versions that
elements and swaps them if they are in the wrong can improve performance, but the core logic
order, iterating through the list until all elements are remains the same.
sorted.

3 Operations 4 Time Complexity

The primary operation is comparison and swap. The O(n^2) in the worst and average cases. In the best
algorithm iterates through the list, comparing case, when the list is already sorted, it has O(n)
adjacent elements and swapping them if necessary. complexity.
Binary Trees: A Hierarchical Structure
A binary tree is a hierarchical data structure where each node has at most two children, referred to as the left child and
the right child. The topmost node is called the root, and the nodes without children are called leaf nodes.

Types Operations Time Complexity

Types of binary trees include binary Common operations include The time complexity for operations
search trees, AVL trees, red-black insertion, deletion, search, traversal like search, insert, and delete in a
trees, and heaps. (preorder, inorder, postorder), and balanced binary tree is typically
finding the minimum and maximum O(log n), while in a skewed tree, it
values. can be O(n) in the worst case.
Binary Search Trees: Ordered Structure
A binary search tree (BST) is a binary tree where the nodes are arranged in a specific order. The left subtree of a node
contains values smaller than the node, while the right subtree contains values larger than the node.

Operations Time Complexity (Average)

Insert O(log n)

Search O(log n)

Delete O(log n)
Graphs: Connecting Nodes
A graph is a data structure that represents a set of objects (nodes or vertices)
connected by edges or arcs. Each edge represents a relationship or
connection between two nodes.

Types Operations
Types include directed graphs, Common operations include
undirected graphs, weighted insertion of nodes and edges,
graphs, cyclic graphs, and acyclic traversal (depth-first search,
graphs. breadth-first search), finding
shortest paths, detecting cycles,
and calculating connectivity.

Time Complexity
Time complexity varies based on the specific algorithm used. Depth-first
search and breadth-first search have a time complexity of O(V + E) where
V is the number of nodes and E is the number of edges.
Graphs: Use Cases & Implementation
Graphs have numerous real-world applications. They are used to represent relationships in social
networks, model transportation networks, optimize routes, and design efficient algorithms.

Use Cases
Social networks (friend connections), GPS navigation (route finding), transportation
networks (city planning), electrical circuits (connectivity analysis), and scheduling
problems (task dependencies).

Implementation
Graphs can be implemented using adjacency matrices or adjacency lists, depending
on the specific needs and trade-offs in terms of space and time complexity.

Advantages
Flexibility in representing relationships, efficient handling of complex connections, and
suitability for modeling real-world scenarios.

Disadvantages
Can be computationally expensive for certain operations, requiring advanced
algorithms for efficient processing.
C++ Standard Template
Library: Powerful Tools
The C++ Standard Template Library (STL) provides a powerful and flexible set of data
structures and algorithms, simplifying development by offering ready-to-use components.

Containers Algorithms
These provide storage for data, including STL offers a wide range of algorithms for
vectors, lists, deques, sets, maps, and sorting, searching, copying, transforming,
more, offering different storage methods and manipulating data within containers.
and access mechanisms.

Iterators Function Objects

These provide a way to traverse and access These are objects that can be invoked like
elements within containers, enabling functions, allowing for customization of
generic algorithms to work with different algorithms by providing specific behavior or
container types. criteria.
Project
Overview
Conclusion: Data Structures
& Algorithms - The
Foundation of Software
Understanding data structures and algorithms is vital for building efficient and scalable
software systems. They provide the foundation for organizing and manipulating data,
enabling developers to create robust applications.

Key Takeaways Applications

Each data structure has its strengths Data structures are used in a wide
and weaknesses. Selecting the range of applications, including
appropriate structure for a particular databases, search engines, operating
task is crucial for performance systems, networking, and web
optimization. development.

Future Learning
Continue exploring advanced data structures, algorithms, and their applications.
Understanding these concepts is essential for achieving proficiency in software
development.