AM transmitter

 Transmitters that transmit AM signals are known

as AM transmitters.
 These transmitters are used in medium wave
(MW) and short wave (SW) frequency bands for
AM broadcast.
 The MW band has frequencies between 550 KHz
and 1650 KHz, and the SW band has frequencies
ranging from 3 MHz to 30 MHz.
 The two types of AM transmitters that are used
based on their transmitting powers are:
 1.Low level 2. high level

Low level transmitter
 MIC
 Audio amplifier
 Carrier oscillator
 Buffer amplifier
 Frequency multiplier
 Modulator
 Intermediate RF amplifier
 RF power amplifier
 Antenna
 Microphone:- Convert sund wave into electrical wave.
 Audio amplifier- is strengthen the weak signal received
from mic
 Oscillator:-It is generate a high frequency signal
 RF buffer amplifier:- isolate the oscillator from succeeding
stages
 Frequency multiplier:- It is meant for multiplying the
frequency of the oscillator
 Modulator:- Modulating the RF carrier in accordance with
the modulating signal
 Intermediate RF amplifier:-amplify the wweak signal from
modulator
 RF power amplifier:- amplifying the modulated output for
transmission
 Antenna:- Transmitting antenna convert the electrical
signal to the electromagnetic waves and radiate the EM
waves to free space.
High level transmitter
Comparision of Am and Fm
Signals
 The amplitude of an FM wave remains constant.
This provides the system designers an opportunity
to remove the noise from the received signal.
 This is done in FM receivers by employing an
amplitude limiter circuit so that the noise above the
limiting amplitude is suppressed.
 FM system is considered a noise immune system.
 This is not possible in AM systems because the
baseband signal is carried by the amplitude
variations it self and the envelope of the AM signal
cannot be altered.
· Most of the power in an FM signal is
carried by the side bands. For higher values
of the modulation index, mc, the major
portion of the total power is contained is
side bands, and the carrier signal contains
less power.
 AM system, only one third of the total

power is carried by the side bands and two

thirds of the total power is lost in the form
of carrier power.
 · In FM systems, the power of the transmitted
signal depends on the amplitude of the un
modulated carrier signal, and hence it is constant.
 AM systems, the power depends on the
modulation index ma. The maximum allowable
power in AM systems is 100 percent when ma is
unity. Such restriction is not applicable in case of
FM systems.
 This is because the total power in an FM system is
independent of the modulation index, mf and
frequency deviation fd. Therefore, the power
usage is optimum in an FM system
 In an AM system, the only method of reducing noise is to
increase the transmitted power of the signal. This operation
increases the cost of the AM system.
 In an FM system, you can increase the frequency deviation in
the carrier signal to reduce the noise. if the frequency
deviation is high, then the corresponding variation in
amplitude of the baseband signal can be easily retrieved.
 if the frequency deviation is small, noise 'can overshadow
this variation and the frequency deviation cannot be
translated into its corresponding amplitude variation. Thus,
by increasing frequency deviations in the FM signal, the noise
effect can he reduced.
 There is no provision in AM system to reduce the noise effect
by any method, other than increasing it’s transmitted power
 · In an FM signal, the adjacent FM channels
are separated by guard bands.
 In an FM system there is no signal transmission
through the spectrum space or the guard band.
 Therefore, there is hardly any interference of
adjacent FM channels.
in an AM system, there is no guard band
provided between the two adjacent channels.
Therefore, there is always interference of AM
radio stations unless the received signal is strong
enough to suppress the signal of the adjacent
channel.
 The equipment of FM system is more
complex than AM systems because of the
complex circuitry of FM systems; this is
another reason that FM systems are costlier
AM systems
 · The receiving area of an FM system is
smaller than an AM system consequently
FM channels are restricted to metropolitan
areas while AM radio stations can be received
anywhere in the world. An FM system transmits
signals through line of sight propagation, in
which the distance between the transmitting
and receiving antenna should not be much. in
an AM system signals of short wave band
stations are transmitted through atmospheric
layers that reflect the radio waves over a wider
area.
Balanced modulator
 In electronic communications, a balanced
modulator is a circuit that produces
double-sideband suppressed-carrier
(DSBSC) signals: It suppresses the radio
frequency carrier thus leaving the sum and
difference frequencies at the output.
Balanced modulator using AM
modulator
 Carrier is connected both modulators
 Message signal is applied to M1
 Inverted version of message is applied to

M2
 S1(t)= Ec[1+mx(t)cos(2Πfct)
 S2(t)= Ec[1-mx(t)cos(2Πfct)
 These signals are applied to a subtractor

circuit to produce desired DSB-SC.

 Out put = 2mEc x(t) cos(2Πfct)
Balanced modulator using
linear device
Ring modulator /chopper
modulator
Balanced modulator using
FET/BJT
Coherent /synchronous
detection
FM generation
 Direct method or parameter variation
method
 reactance modulator and varactor diode

modulator
 Indirect method or Armstrong method
Direct method
 In this method modulating signal directly
modulate the carrier.
 Carrier frequency fc= 1/2Π√LC
 An oscillator circuit whose frequency is

controlled by a modulating voltage is called

voltage controlled oscillator.
 Varicap or varactor diode
 BJT and FET--- Miller effect method
Reactance modulator
Reactance modulator
Draw back
 In this method not easy to get high order
stability in carrier frequency
 Due to non linearity of device produces a

frequency variation, hence FM distorted

Indirect or Armstrong FM
generation
 In this method FM is obtained through
phase modulation.
 Crystal oscillator is used hence the

frequency stability is very high.

 Working

◦ 1. Generate a narrow band FM wave using a

phase modulator
◦ 2. Use the frequency multipliers and mixer to
obtain the required values of frequency deviation
carrier and modulation index
Indirect FM
Operation of armstrong FM
 Crystal oscillator generate low frequency and applied to
combined network and a 90 degree phase shifter
 The modulating signal is passed through an integrator to
boost the signal and applied to a product modulator
 Product modulator produces 2 side band
 Carrier and 90 degree shifted sidebands are added in the
combining network
 Out put of combining networks are low fc and modulation
index
 Passing FM wave through a group of multipliers to obtain
signal strength
Pre emphasis circuit
 Noise has greater effect on the higher modulating
frequencies.
 This noise effect can be reduced by increasing the value of
modulation index for higher modulating frequencies.
 This can be done by increasing the frequency deviation
 This can be achieved by increasing the amplitude of
modulating signal at higher modulating frequencies.
 The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies is
called as pre-emphasis.
 A differentiating circuit act as a pre-emphasis circuit
(high pass filter)
 RC network linearly boost the higher order frequencies and
improve the signal to noise ratio.
Pre emphasis circuit and
characteristics
De-emphasis
 In receiver, de-emphasis circuits used for
the artificially boosted high frequency
signals are brought to their original
amplitude .
 The circuit is a low pass filter.
 The out put of demodulator fed to the de-

emphasis circuit.
 RC = 75microsecond
De emphasis ciruits
Noise in communication system
 a) Atmospheric Noise : Atmospheric Noise is also known
as static noise which is the natural source of disturbance
caused by lightning, discharge in thunderstorm and the
natural disturbances occurring in the nature.
 b) Industrial Noise : Sources of Industrial noise are auto-
mobiles, aircraft, ignition of electric motors and switching
gear. The main cause of Industrial noise is High voltage
wires. These noises is generally produced by the discharge
present in the operations.
 c) Extraterrestrial Noise : Extraterrestrial Noise exist on
the basis of their originating source. They are subdivided into
i) Solar Noise
ii) Cosmic Noise

 1) Shot Noise : These Noise are generally arises in the active devices due to
the random behavior of Charge particles or carries. In case of electron tube, shot
Noise is produces due to the random emission of electron form cathodes.
 2) Partition Noise : When a circuit is to divide in between two or more paths
then the noise generated is known as Partition noise. The reason for the
generation is random fluctuation in the division.
 3) Low- Frequency Noise : They are also known as FLICKER NOISE. These
type of noise are generally observed at a frequency range below few kHz. Power
spectral density of these noise increases with the decrease in frequency. That
why the name is given Low- Frequency Noise.
 4) High- Frequency Noise : These noises are also known TRANSIT- TIME Noise.
They are observed in the semi-conductor devices when the transit time of a
charge carrier while crossing a junction is compared with the time period of that
signal.
 5) Thermal Noise : Thermal Noise are random and often referred as White
Noise or Johnson Noise. Thermal noise are generally observed in the resistor or
the sensitive resistive components of a complex impedance due to the random
and rapid movement of molecules or atoms or electrons.

 signal to noise ratio
 Signal-to-noise ratio is a measure used in

science and engineering that compares the

level of a desired signal to the level of
background noise.
 SNR is defined as the ratio of signal power

to the noise power, often expressed in

decibels. A ratio higher than 1:1 indicates
more signal than noise

methods to improve signal to nose ratio

 All real measurements are disturbed by noise.

This includes electronics noise but can also
include external events that affect the measured
phenomenon — wind, vibrations, gravitational
attraction of the moon, variations of
temperature, variations of humidity, etc.,
depending on what is measured and of the
sensitivity of the device. It is often possible to
reduce the noise by controlling the environment.
Otherwise, when the characteristics of the noise
are known and are different from the signals, it is
possible to filter it or to process the signal
 Improve the Selectivity of the device
 Improve the sensitivity of the device
 Control the environmental condition
 Suitable filtering
 Suitable modulation method
Advantages of FM over AM
 Operating range is large
 All power contained in the FM in useful
 A fraction of audio power is required for

100%modulation
 Independent transmitters are possible for

same frequency
 No restriction in modulation index
Drawbacks of FM
 Complex and expensive equipment
 Area of reception is small due to line of

sight reception
 In FM wider channel compared to AM