 COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

 CREDITS - 5 (LTP:3, 1,2)

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 Course Objective: To impart knowledge of the basic
structure of digital computer, its operation, design of
basic processors, memory organization and its interface
with various memory & input/output devices.

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List of References:
1. Hamacher, Vranesic, Zaky, “Computer Organization”, McGraw Hill
2. M. Morris Mano, “Computer System Architecture”, Pearson Education
3. Andrew S. Tanenbaum and Todd Austin, “Structured Computer Organization”,
Pearson Education
4. N D Jotwani, “Computer system organization”, McGraw Hill
5. R.S.Gaonkar, “Microprocessor Architecture, Programming and Applications
with 8085”, Penram International
6.Computer organization and design by David Patterson and john hennessy

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Course Outcomes (COs): After successful completion of the course, the
students will be able to…
1.Understand the organization of the control unit, arithmetic and logical unit,
memory unit and I/O unit.
2.Apply knowledge of the processor’s internal registers and operations for
assembly programming to provide solutions of given problems.
3.Compare execution time of instructions in terms of machine cycles and T
states.
4.Design a basic central processing unit.
5.Design interfacing of memory and I/O modules with CPU.
6.Compare performance of different types of computer architectures.

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 Computer architecture & Organization

Architecture describes what the computer does organization

describes how it does it.
 Computer Architecture deals with functional behavior of
computer system.
 The architecture of a computer is the set of resources seen by
the computer programmer. It includes general purpose registers,
the status word, the instruction set, the address space, etc.
 Computer organization is how operational attributes are linked
together and contribute to realize the architectural
specifications. Computer Organization comes after the decide of
Computer Architecture first. Computer Organization deals with
structural relationship.
80x86 ISAs : instructions, operands, operations etc

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 The term organization includes the high-level aspects of a
computer's design, such as the memory system, the
memory interconnect, and the design of the internal
processor or CPU (central processing unit—where
arithmetic, logic, branching, and data transfer are
implemented).
 For example, two processors with the same instruction
set architectures but very different organizations are the
 AMD Opteron 64 and the Intel Pentium 4. Both processors
implement the x86 instruction set, but they have very
different pipeline and cache organizations.
 E.g. multiplication instruction is there or not is
architecture but how it built is organization
word architecture covers all three aspects of computer
design—instruction set architecture, organization, and
hardware.
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•The components from which computers are built, i.e.,
computer organization.

•In contrast, computer architecture is the science of

integrating those components to achieve a level of
functionality and performance.

•It is as if computer organization examines the bricks, nails,

and other building material, While computer architecture
looks at the design of the house.

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 Architecture is the external view of a computer that is essential to
properly understood by anyone who is likely to program a computer
using machine or assembly languages
 A knowledge of organization can help one to understand
the internal operations that are carried out by a
computer while program is being executed
 Organization deals with the internal view of the
computer

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 Why to study this subject?

 As a programmer we should no how a computer

executes programs internally ? Can help to write more
effective programs
 It also helps them to understand why a program
exhibits poor performance even though it might be
implementing a computationally efficient algorithm?
 You can program bare hardware without the support of
any os

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Block diagram of computer
 What is a computer?

 Simply put, a computer is a sophisticated electronic

calculating machine that:
 Accepts input information,
 Processes the information according to a list of
internally stored instructions and
 Produces the resulting output information.
 Functions performed by a computer are:
 Accepting information to be processed as input.
 Storing a list of instructions to process the
information.
 Processing the information according to the list of
instructions.
 Providing the results of the processing as output.
 What are the functional units of a computer?
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 Functional units of a computer
Input unit accepts Arithmetic and logic unit(ALU):
information: •Performs the desired
•Human operators, operations on the input
•Electromechanical devices information as determined
•Other computers by instructions in the memory

Memory
Arithmetic
Input
Instr1 & Logic
Instr2
Instr3
Data1
Output Data2 Control

I/O Processor
Stores
information: Control unit coordinates
Output unit sends various actions
•Instructions,
results of processing: •Input,
•To a monitor display, •Data
•Output
•To a printer •Processing

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 limitation

Limitation of von Neumann : a single connection exists between

processor and memory
So at a time either an instruction can be fetched or a data item can be
accessesed

The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with separate

storage and signal pathways for instructions and data.

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 Microprocessor

It is a single chip which consists of ALU, control unit and registers

It is a programmable integrated device that has computing and
decision making capabilities similar to CPU of a computer
The microprocessor is being used in a wide range of products called
microprocessor based products or systems or embedded in a device
Or it can function as CPU of computer called a microcomputer

We are going to discuss 8 bit microprocessor 8085 used in

microprocessor based products or systems or embedded in a device
not used as CPU in computer

Three types of microcompuetres : PC,PC XT and PC AT

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 Micropocessor

Microprocessor communicates and operates in the binary numbers 0

and 1 called bits

Each microprocessor has a fixed set of instructions in the form of

binary patterns called a machine language

However it is difficult for human to communicate in the language 0s

and 1s.

Therefore the binary instructions are given abbreviated names called

mnemonics and program written using mnemonics called assembly
language for a given microprocessor

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 Information in a computer -- Instructions

 Instructions specify commands to:

 Transfer information within a computer (e.g., from memory
to ALU)
 Transfer of information between the computer and I/O
devices (e.g., from keyboard to computer, or computer to
printer)
 Perform arithmetic and logic operations (e.g., Add two
numbers, Perform a logical AND).
 A sequence of instructions to perform a task is called a
program, which is stored in the memory.
 Processor fetches instructions that make up a program
from the memory and performs the operations stated in
those instructions.
 What do the instructions operate upon?

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 Information in a computer -- Data

 Data are the “operands” upon which instructions

operate.
 Data could be:
 Numbers,
 Encoded characters.
 Data, in a broad sense means any digital information.
 Computers use data that is encoded as a string of
binary digits called bits.

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 Input unit
Binary information must be presented to a computer in a specific format. This
task is performed by the input unit:
- Interfaces with input devices.
- Accepts binary information from the input devices.
- Presents this binary information in a format expected by the computer.
- Transfers this information to the memory or processor.
Real world Computer

Memory

Keyboard
Audio input
Input Unit
……

Processor

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 Memory unit
 Memory unit stores instructions and data.
 Recall, data is represented as a series of bits.
 To store data, memory unit thus stores bits.
Two types: primary and secondary (storage) memory
RAM is made of registers and each register has group of flip-
flops or FET known as memory cells. The number of bits
stored in register is called memory word
 Processor reads instructions and reads/writes data from/to the
memory during the execution of a program.
 In practice, a group of bits is fetched at a time.
 Group of bits stored or retrieved at a time is termed as “word”
 Number of bits in a word is termed as the “word length” of a
computer.
 In order to read/write to and from memory, a processor should
know where to look:
 “Address” is associated with each word location.

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 Memory unit (contd..)
 Processor reads/writes to/from memory based on the
memory address:
 Access any word location in a short and fixed amount of
time based on the address.
 Random Access Memory (RAM) provides fixed access time
independent of the location of the word.
 Access time is known as “Memory Access Time”.

 Memory and processor have to “communicate” with

each other in order to read/write information.
 In order to reduce “communication time”, a small amount
of Cache is tightly coupled with the processor.
 Modern computers have three to four levels of RAM units with
different speeds and sizes:
 Fastest, smallest known as Cache
 Slowest, largest known as Main memory.

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 Memory unit (contd..)

 Primary storage of the computer consists of RAM units.

 Fastest, smallest unit is Cache.
 Slowest, largest unit is Main Memory.

 Primary storage is insufficient to store large amounts of

data and programs.
 Primary storage can be added, but it is expensive.
 Store large amounts of data on secondary storage
devices:
 Magnetic disks and tapes,
 Optical disks (CD-ROMS).
 Access to the data stored in secondary storage in slower,
but take advantage of the fact that some information may
be accessed infrequently.
 Cost of a memory unit depends on its access time,
lesser access time implies higher cost.
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 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

 Operations are executed in the Arithmetic and Logic

Unit (ALU).
 Arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction.
 Logic operations such as comparison of numbers.
 In order to execute an instruction, operands need to be
brought into the ALU from the memory.
 Operands are stored in general purpose registers available
in the ALU.
 Access times of general purpose registers are faster than
the cache.
 Results of the operations are stored back in the memory
or retained in the processor for immediate use.

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 Output unit
•Computers represent information in a specific binary form. Output units:
- Interface with output devices.
- Accept processed results provided by the computer in specific binary form.
- Convert the information in binary form to a form understood by an
output device.

Computer Real world

Memory Printer
Graphics display
Speakers
……
Output Unit

Processor

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 Control unit

 Operation of a computer can be summarized as:

 Accepts information from the input units (Input unit).
 Stores the information (Memory).
 Processes the information (ALU).
 Provides processed results through the output units
(Output unit).
 Operations of Input unit, Memory, ALU and Output unit
are coordinated by Control unit.
 Instructions control “what” operations take place (e.g.
data transfer, processing).
 Control unit generates timing signals which determines
“when” a particular operation takes place.

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 How are the functional units connected?

•For a computer to achieve its operation, the functional units need to

communicate with each other.
•In order to communicate, they need to be connected.

Input Output Memory Processor

Bus

•Functional units may be connected by a group of parallel wires.

•The group of parallel wires is called a bus.
•Each wire in a bus can transfer one bit of information.
•The number of parallel wires in a bus is equal to the word length of
a computer

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