Chapter 4

Control Statements: Part I; Assignment, ++ and --

Operators
Java How to Program, 11/e, Global Edition
Questions? E-mail [email protected]

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4.1 Introduction
 Before writing a program to solve a problem, have a thorough
understanding of the problem and a carefully planned approach to
solving it.
 Understand the types of building blocks that are available and employ

proven program-construction techniques.

 In this chapter we discuss

◦ Java’s if, if…else and while statements

◦ Compound assignment, increment and decrement operators
◦ Portability of Java’s primitive types

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4.2 Algorithms
 Any computing problem can be solved by executing a series of actions in a specific
order.
 An algorithm is a procedure for solving a problem in terms of
◦ the actions to execute and
◦ the order in which these actions execute
 The “rise-and-shine algorithm” followed by one executive for getting out of bed and
going to work:
◦ (1) Get out of bed; (2) take off pajamas; (3) take a shower; (4) get dressed; (5) eat breakfast;
(6) carpool to work.
 Suppose that the same steps are performed in a slightly different order:
◦ (1) Get out of bed; (2) take off pajamas; (3) get dressed; (4) take a shower; (5) eat breakfast;
(6) carpool to work.
 Specifying the order in which statements (actions) execute in a program is called
program control.

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4.3 Pseudocode
 Pseudocode is an informal language that helps you develop algorithms without having to
worry about the strict details of Java language syntax.
 Particularly useful for developing algorithms that will be converted to structured portions
of Java programs.
 Similar to everyday English.
 Helps you “think out” a program before attempting to write it in a programming language,
such as Java.
 You can type pseudocode conveniently, using any text-editor program.
 Carefully prepared pseudocode can easily be converted to a corresponding Java program.
 Pseudocode normally describes only statements representing the actions that occur after
you convert a program from pseudocode to Java and the program is run on a computer.
◦ e.g., input, output or calculations.

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4.4 Control Structures
 Sequential execution: Statements in a program execute one after the other in the
order in which they are written.
 Transfer of control: Various Java statements, enable you to specify that the next
statement to execute is not necessarily the next one in sequence.
 Bohm and Jacopini
◦ Demonstrated that programs could be written without any goto statements.
◦ All programs can be written in terms of only three control structures—the sequence
structure, the selection structure and the iteration structure.
 When we introduce Java’s control-structure implementations, we’ll refer to them in
the terminology of the Java Language Specification as “control statements.”

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4.4 Control Structures (Cont.)
Sequence Structure in Java
 Built into Java.
 Unless directed otherwise, the computer executes Java statements one after the
other in the order in which they’re written.
 The activity diagram in Fig. 4.1 illustrates a typical sequence structure in which
two calculations are performed in order.
 Java lets you have as many actions as you want in a sequence structure.
 Anywhere a single action may be placed, we may place several actions in
sequence.

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4.4 Control Structures (Cont.)
 UML activity diagram
 Models the workflow (also called the activity) of a portion of a software system.
 May include a portion of an algorithm, like the sequence structure in Fig. 4.1.
 Composed of symbols
◦ action-state symbols (rectangles with their left and right sides replaced with outward arcs)
◦ diamonds
◦ small circles
 Symbols connected by transition arrows, which represent the flow of the activity—
the order in which the actions should occur.
 Help you develop and represent algorithms.
 Clearly show how control structures operate.

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4.4 Control Structures (Cont.)
 Sequence-structure activity diagram in Fig. 4.1.
 Two action states that represent actions to perform.
 Each contains an action expression that specifies a particular action to
perform.
 Arrows represent transitions (order in which the actions represented by the
action states occur).
 Solid circle at the top represents the initial state—the beginning of the
workflow before the program performs the modeled actions.
 Solid circle surrounded by a hollow circle at the bottom represents the final
state—the end of the workflow after the program performs its actions.

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4.4 Control Structures (Cont.)
 UML notes
◦ Like comments in Java.
◦ Rectangles with the upper-right corners folded over.
◦ Dotted line connects each note with the element it describes.
◦ Activity diagrams normally do not show the corresponding Java code. We do this
here to illustrate how the diagram relates to Java code.
 More information on the UML
◦ see our optional case study (Chapters 33–34)
◦ visit www.uml.org

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4.4 Control Structures (Cont.)
Selection Statements in Java
 Three types of selection statements.
 if statement:
◦ Performs an action, if a condition is true; skips it, if false.
◦ Single-selection statement—selects or ignores a single action (or group of actions).
 if…else statement:
◦ Performs an action if a condition is true and performs a different action if the condition is
false.
◦ Double-selection statement—selects between two different actions (or groups of
actions).
 switch statement
◦ Performs one of several actions, based on the value of an expression.
◦ Multiple-selection statement—selects among many different actions (or groups of
actions).

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4.4 Control Structures (Cont.)
Iteration Statements in Java
 Four iteration statements (also called iteration statements or looping

statements)
◦ Perform statements repeatedly while a loop-continuation condition remains true.
 while and for statements perform the action(s) in their bodies zero or more
times
◦ if the loop-continuation condition is initially false, the body will not execute.
 The do…while statement performs the action(s) in its body one or more times.
 Chapter 7 presents the enhanced for statement.
 if, else, switch, while, do and for are keywords.
◦ Appendix C: Complete list of Java keywords.

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4.4 Control Structures (Cont.)
Summary of Control Statements in Java
 Every program is formed by combining the sequence statement,
selection statements (four types) and iteration statements (three
types) as appropriate for the algorithm the program implements.
 Can model each control statement as an activity diagram.
◦ Initial state and a final state represent a control statement’s entry point and exit
point, respectively.
◦ Single-entry/single-exit control statements
◦ Control-statement stacking—connect the exit point of one to the entry point of
the next.
◦ Control-statement nesting—a control statement inside another.

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4.5 if Single-Selection Statement
 Pseudocode
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
 If the condition is false, the Print statement is ignored, and the next
pseudocode statement in order is performed.
 Indentation
◦ Optional, but recommended
◦ Emphasizes the inherent structure of structured programs
 The preceding pseudocode If in Java:
if (studentGrade >= 60) {
System.out.println("Passed");
}
 Corresponds closely to the pseudocode.

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4.5 if Single-Selection Statement (Cont.)
UML Activity Diagram for an if Statement
 Figure 4.2 if statement UML activity diagram.

 Diamond, or decision symbol, indicates that a decision is to be made.

 Workflow continues along a path determined by the symbol’s guard conditions,

which can be true or false.

 Each transition arrow emerging from a decision symbol has a guard condition

(in square brackets next to the arrow).

 If a guard condition is true, the workflow enters the action state to which the

transition arrow points.

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement
 if…else double-selection statement—specify an action to perform when
the condition is true and a different action when the condition is false.
 Pseudocode
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
Else
Print “Failed”
 The preceding If…Else pseudocode statement in Java:
if (grade >= 60) {
System.out.println("Passed");
}
else {
System.out.println("Failed");
}
 Note that the body of the else is also indented.

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement
 if…else double-selection statement—specify an action to perform when
the condition is true and a different action when the condition is false.
 Pseudocode
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “Passed”
Else
Print “Failed”
 The preceding If…Else pseudocode statement in Java:
if (grade >= 60) {
System.out.println("Passed");
}
else {
System.out.println("Failed");
}
 Note that the body of the else is also indented.

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
UML Activity Diagram for an if…else Statement
 Figure 4.3 illustrates the flow of control in the if…else statement.
 The symbols in the UML activity diagram (besides the initial state,

transition arrows and final state) represent action states and decisions.

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
Nested if…else Statements
 A program can test multiple cases by placing if…else statements inside other
if…else statements to create nested if…else statements.
 Pseudocode:
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 90
Print “A”
else
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 80
Print “B”
else
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 70
Print “C”
else
If student’s grade is greater than or equal to 60
Print “D”
else
Print “F”

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
 This pseudocode may be written in Java as
if (studentGrade >= 90) {
System.out.println("A");
}
else {
if (studentGrade >= 80) {
System.out.println("B");
}
else {
if (studentGrade >= 70) {
System.out.println("C");
}
else {
if (studentGrade >= 60) {
System.out.println("D");
}
else {
System.out.println("F");
}
}
}
}
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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
 If studentGrade >= 90, the first four conditions will be true, but only the
statement in the if part of the first if…else statement will execute. After that,
the else part of the “outermost” if…else statement is skipped.

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
 Most Java programmers prefer to write the preceding nested if…else
statement as
if (studentGrade >= 90) {
System.out.println("A");
}
else if (studentGrade >= 80) {
System.out.println("B");
}
else if (studentGrade >= 70) {
System.out.println("C");
}
else if (studentGrade >= 60) {
System.out.println("D");
}
else {
System.out.println("F");
}

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
Dangling-else Problem
 Throughout the text, we always enclose control statement
bodies in braces ({ and }). This avoids a logic error called the
“dangling-else” problem. We investigate this problem in –.

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
Blocks
 The if statement normally expects only one statement in its body.
 To include several statements in the body of an if (or the body of an else for an if…
else statement), enclose the statements in braces.
 Statements contained in a pair of braces (such as the body of a method) form a block.
 A block can be placed anywhere in a method that a single statement can be placed.
 Example: A block in the else part of an if…else statement:
if (grade >= 60) {
System.out.println("Passed");
}
else {
System.out.println("Failed");
System.out.println("You must take this course again.");
}

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
 Syntax errors (e.g., a missing brace) are caught by the compiler.
 A logic error (e.g., when both braces in a block are left out of the

program) has its effect at execution time.

 A fatal logic error causes a program to fail and terminate prematurely.
 A nonfatal logic error allows a program to continue executing but

causes it to produce incorrect results.

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
 Just as a block can be placed anywhere a single statement can be
placed, it’s also possible to have an empty statement.
 The empty statement is represented by placing a semicolon (;) where

a statement would normally be.

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
Conditional operator (?:)
 Conditional operator (?:)—shorthand if…else.
 Ternary operator (takes three operands)
 Operands and ?: form a conditional expression
 Operand to the left of the ? is a boolean expression—evaluates to a boolean
value (true or false)
 Second operand (between the ? and :) is the value if the boolean expression
is true
 Third operand (to the right of the :) is the value if the boolean expression
evaluates to false.

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4.6 if…else Double-Selection Statement (Cont.)
 Example:
System.out.println(
studentGrade >= 60 ? "Passed" : "Failed");
 Evaluates to the string "Passed" if the boolean expression
studentGrade >= 60 is true and to the string "Failed" if it is
false.

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4.7 Student Class: Nested if…else Statement
Class Student
 Class Student (Fig. 4.4) stores a student’s name and average and
provides methods for manipulating these values.
 The class contains:
◦ instance variable name of type String to store a Student’s name
◦ instance variable average of type double to store a Student’s average in a
course
◦ a constructor that initializes the name and average
◦ methods setName and getName to set and get the Student’s name
◦ methods setAverage and getAverage to set and get the Student’s
average
◦ method getLetterGrade, which uses nested if…else statements to
determine the Student’s letter grade based on the Student’s average

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4.7 Student Class: Nested if…else Statement (Cont.)
 The constructor and method setAverage each use nested if
statements to validate the value used to set the average—these
statements ensure that the value is greater than 0.0 and less than or
equal to 100.0; otherwise, average’s value is left unchanged.
 Each if statement contains a simple condition. If the condition in line
13 is true, only then will the condition in line 14 be tested, and only if
the conditions in both line 13 and line 14 are true will the statement
in line 15 execute.

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4.7 Student Class: Nested if…else Statement (Cont.)
Class StudentTest
 To demonstrate the nested if…else statements in class Student’s

getLetterGrade method, class StudentTest’s main method creates

two Student objects then displays each Student’s name and letter
grade by calling the objects’ getName and getLetterGrade methods,
respectively.

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4.8 while Iteration Statement
 Iteration statement—repeats an action while a condition remains true.
 Pseudocode
While there are more items on my shopping list
Purchase next item and cross it off my list
 The iteration statement’s body may be a single statement or a block.
 Eventually, the condition will become false. At this point, the iteration

terminates, and the first statement after the iteration statement

executes.

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4.8 while Iteration Statement (Cont.)
 Example of Java’s while iteration statement: find the first power of 3 larger
than 100. Assume int variable product is initialized to 3.
while (product <= 100)
product = 3 * product;
 Each iteration multiplies product by 3, so product takes on the values 9,
27, 81 and 243 successively.
 When product becomes 243, product <= 100 becomes false.
 Iteration terminates. The final value of product is 243.
 Program execution continues with the next statement after the while
statement.

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4.8 while Iteration Statement (Cont.)
UML Activity Diagram for a while Statement
 The UML activity diagram in Fig. 4.6 illustrates the flow of control in the preceding
while statement.
 The UML represents both the merge symbol and the decision symbol as diamonds.
 The merge symbol joins two flows of activity into one.

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4.8 while Iteration Statement (Cont.)
 The decision and merge symbols can be distinguished by the number of
“incoming” and “outgoing” transition arrows.
◦ A decision symbol has one transition arrow pointing to the diamond and two
or more pointing out from it to indicate possible transitions from that point.
Each transition arrow pointing out of a decision symbol has a guard condition
next to it.
◦ A merge symbol has two or more transition arrows pointing to the diamond
and only one pointing from the diamond, to indicate multiple activity flows
merging to continue the activity. None of the transition arrows associated with
a merge symbol has a guard condition.

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled Iteration
 A class of ten students took a quiz. The grades (integers in the range 0-100) for this
quiz are available to you. Determine the class average on the quiz.
 The class average is equal to the sum of the grades divided by the number of
students.
 The algorithm for solving this problem on a computer must input each grade,
keep track of the total of all grades input, perform the averaging calculation and
print the result.

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled Iteration
Pseudocode Algorithm with Counter-Controlled Iteration
 Use counter-controlled iteration to input the grades one at a time.
 A variable called a counter (or control variable) controls the number of times a
set of statements will execute.
 Counter-controlled iteration is often called definite iteration, because the
number of iterations is known before the loop begins executing.

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)

 A total is a variable used to accumulate the sum of several values.

 A counter is a variable used to count.
 Variables used to store totals are normally initialized to zero before

being used in a program.

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
Local Variables in Method main
 Variables declared in a method body are local variables and can be used

only from the line of their declaration to the closing right brace of the
method declaration.
 A local variable’s declaration must appear before the variable is used in

that method.
 A local variable cannot be accessed outside the method in which it’s

declared.

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
Notes on Integer Division and Truncation
 The program’s output indicates that the sum of the grade values in the
sample execution is 846, which, when divided by 10, should yield the
floating-point number 84.6.
 The result of the calculation total / 10 (Fig. 4.8) is the integer 84,
because total and 10 are both integers.
 Dividing two integers results in integer division—any fractional part of
the calculation is truncated (i.e., lost).

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
A Note About Arithmetic Overflow
 In Fig. 4.8, the following statement added each grade entered by the
user to the total
total = total + grade; // add grade to total
 Even this simple statement has a potential problem—adding the
integers could result in a value that’s too large to store in an int
variable.
 This is known as arithmetic overflow and causes undefined behavior,
which can lead to unintended results.

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
 Figure 2.7’s Addition program had the same issue when calculating
the sum of two int values entered by the user:
◦ int sum = number1 + number2;

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
 The maximum and minimum values that can be stored in an int
variable are represented by the constants MIN_VALUE and MAX_VALUE,
respectively, which are defined in class Integer.
 There are similar constants for the other integral types and for floating-
point types.
 Each primitive type has a corresponding class type in package
java.lang.

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
 It’s considered a good practice to ensure, before you perform
arithmetic calculations, that they will not overflow.
 The code for doing this is shown on the CERT website
www.securecoding.cert.org—just search for guideline
“NUM00-J.”
 The code for doing this is shown on the CERT website:
◦ http://www.securecoding.cert.org
 In industrial-strength code, you should perform checks like these for
all calculations.

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
A Deeper Look at Receiving User Input
 Any time a program receives input from the user, various problems might occur.
For example, in the following statement we assume that the user will enter an
integer grade in the range 0 to 100
int grade = input.nextInt(); // input next grade
 However, the person entering a grade could enter an integer less than 0, an
integer greater than 100, an integer outside the range of values that can be
stored in an int variable, a number containing a decimal point or a value
containing letters or special symbols that’s not even an integer.

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4.9 Formulating Algorithms: Counter-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
 To ensure that inputs are valid, industrial-strength programs must test for all
possible erroneous cases.
 A program that inputs grades should validate the grades by using range
checking to ensure that hey are values from 0 to 100.
 You can then ask the user to reenter any value that’s out of range.
 If a program requires inputs from a specific set of values (e.g., nonsequential
product codes), you can ensure that each input matches a value in the set.

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled
Iteration
 Develop a class-averaging program that processes grades for an
arbitrary number of students each time it is run.
 Sentinel-controlled iteration is often called indefinite iteration because

the number of iterations is not known before the loop begins executing.
 A special value called a sentinel value (also called a signal value, a

dummy value or a flag value) can be used to indicate “end of data

entry.”
 A sentinel value must be chosen that cannot be confused with an

acceptable input value.

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
Developing the Pseudocode Algorithm with Top-Down, Stepwise Refinement: The
Top and First Refinement
 Top-down, stepwise refinement
 Begin with a pseudocode representation of the top—a single statement that
conveys the overall function of the program:
◦ Determine the class average for the quiz
 The top is a complete representation of a program. Rarely conveys sufficient
detail from which to write a Java program.

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
 Divide the top into a series of smaller tasks and list these in the order in which
they’ll be performed.
 First refinement:
◦ Initialize variables
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
Calculate and print the class average
 This refinement uses only the sequence structure—the steps listed should
execute in order, one after the other.

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)

Proceeding to the Second Refinement

 Second refinement: commit to specific variables.
 The pseudocode statement
Initialize variables
 can be refined as follows:
Initialize total to zero
Initialize counter to zero

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
 The pseudocode statement
Input, sum and count the quiz grades
 requires iteration to successively input each grade.
 We do not know in advance how many grades will be entered, so we’ll use
sentinel-controlled iteration.

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
 The second refinement of the preceding pseudocode statement is
then
Prompt the user to enter the first grade
Input the first grade (possibly the sentinel)
While the user has not yet entered the sentinel
Add this grade into the running total
Add one to the grade counter
Prompt the user to enter the next grade
Input the next grade (possibly the sentinel)

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled Iteration
(Cont.)
 The pseudocode statement
Calculate and print the class average
 can be refined as follows:
If the counter is not equal to zero
Set the average to the total divided by the counter
Print the average
else
Print “No grades were entered”
 Test for the possibility of division by zero—a logic error that, if
undetected, would cause the program to fail or produce invalid output.

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
Program Logic for Sentinel-Controlled Iteration vs. Counter-
Controlled Iteration
 Program logic for sentinel-controlled iteration

◦ Reads the first value before reaching the while.

◦ This value determines whether the program’s flow of control should enter the
body of the while. If the condition of the while is false, the user entered the
sentinel value, so the body of the while does not execute (i.e., no grades were
entered).
◦ If the condition is true, the body begins execution and processes the input.
◦ Then the loop body inputs the next value from the user before the end of the loop.

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled
Iteration (Cont.)
Explicitly and Implicitly Converting Between Primitive Types
 Integer division yields an integer result.
 To perform a floating-point calculation with integers, temporarily treat these values
as floating-point numbers for use in the calculation.
 The unary cast operator (double) creates a temporary floating-point copy of its
operand.
 Cast operator performs explicit conversion (or type cast).
 The value stored in the operand is unchanged.
 Java evaluates only arithmetic expressions in which the operands’ types are
identical.
 Promotion (or implicit conversion) performed on operands.
 In an expression containing values of the types int and double, the int values
are promoted to double values for use in the expression.

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled Iteration
(Cont.)
 Cast operators are available for any type.
 Cast operator formed by placing parentheses around the name of a type.
 The operator is a unary operator (i.e., an operator that takes only one
operand).
 Java also supports unary versions of the plus (+) and minus (–) operators.
 Cast operators associate from right to left; same precedence as other unary
operators, such as unary + and unary -.
 This precedence is one level higher than that of the multiplicative operators
*, / and %.
 Appendix A: Operator precedence chart

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled Iteration
(Cont.)
Floating-Point Number Precision
 Floating-point numbers are not always 100% precise, but they have
numerous applications.
 For example, when we speak of a “normal” body temperature of 98.6, we do
not need to be precise to a large number of digits.
 Floating-point numbers often arise as a result of division, such as in this
example’s class-average calculation.
 In conventional arithmetic, when we divide 10 by 3, the result is
3.3333333…, with the sequence of 3s repeating infinitely.
 The computer allocates only a fixed amount of space to hold such a value, so
clearly the stored floating-point value can be only an approximation.

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Sentinel-Controlled Iteration
(Cont.)
 Owing to the imprecise nature of floating-point numbers, type double is
preferred over type float, because double variables can represent
floating-point numbers more accurately.
 In some applications, the precision of float and double variables will be
inadequate.
 For precise floating-point numbers (such as those required by monetary
calculations), Java provides class BigDecimal (package java.math), which
we’ll discuss in Chapter 8.

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4.11 Formulating Algorithms: Nested Control Statements
 This case study examines nesting one control statement within
another.
 A college offers a course that prepares students for the state licensing

exam for real-estate brokers. Last year, ten of the students who
completed this course took the exam. The college wants to know how
well its students did on the exam. You’ve been asked to write a program
to summarize the results. You’ve been given a list of these 10 students.
Next to each name is written a 1 if the student passed the exam or a 2 if
the student failed.

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4.10 Formulating Algorithms: Nested Control
Statements (Cont.)
 This case study examines nesting one control statement within
another.
 Your program should analyze the results of the exam as follows:
◦ Input each test result (i.e., a 1 or a 2). Display the message “Enter result” on the
screen each time the program requests another test result.
◦ Count the number of test results of each type.
◦ Display a summary of the test results, indicating the number of students who
passed and the number who failed.
◦ If more than eight students passed the exam, print “Bonus to instructor!”

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4.12 Compound Assignment Operators
 Compound assignment operators abbreviate assignment expressions.
 Example:
c = c + 3;
can be written with the addition compound assignment operator, +=, as
c += 3;
 The += operator adds the value of the expression on its right to the value of the
variable on its left and stores the result in the variable on the left of the operator.
 Statements like
variable = variable operator expression;
where operator is one of the binary operators +, -, *, / or % can be written in the
form
variable operator= expression;

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4.13 Increment and Decrement Operators
 Unary increment operator, ++, adds one to its operand
 Unary decrement operator, --, subtracts one from its operand
 An increment or decrement operator that is prefixed to (placed before)

a variable is referred to as the prefix increment or prefix decrement

operator, respectively.
 An increment or decrement operator that is postfixed to (placed after)

a variable is referred to as the postfix increment or postfix decrement

operator, respectively.

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4.12 Increment and Decrement Operators (Cont.)
 Using the prefix increment (or decrement) operator to add (or subtract) 1
from a variable is known as preincrementing (or predecrementing) the
variable.
 Preincrementing (or predecrementing) a variable causes the variable to be
incremented (decremented) by 1; then the new value is used in the
expression in which it appears.
 Using the postfix increment (or decrement) operator to add (or subtract) 1
from a variable is known as postincrementing (or postdecrementing) the
variable.
 This causes the current value of the variable to be used in the expression in
which it appears; then the variable’s value is incremented (decremented) by
1.

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4.14 Primitive Types
 Appendix D lists the eight primitive types in Java.
 Java requires all variables to have a type.
 Java is a strongly typed language.
 Primitive types in Java are portable across all platforms.
 Instance variables of types char, byte, short, int, long, float
and double are all given the value 0 by default. Instance variables of
type boolean are given the value false by default.
 Reference-type instance variables are initialized by default to the value
null.

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4.15 (Optional) GUI and Graphics Case Study: Creating
Simple Drawings

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