Chapter 02 – Computer

Evolution and
Performance
Week – 02
10- 14 September

1
Main Memory (RAM)
• This module is called memory, or main memory called (RAM).
• Thus temporary storage of both code/inst. and results/data is needed.
• RAM (Random access memory) is directly accessed by the CPU. Volatile
• RAM is usually in GBs. Each location in RAM is accessed by an address
• RAM is a memory that needs to be refreshed every few milli-seconds.
• It is made up of DRAM cells. The technology it uses is called DDR-4.
• ‘DDR’ stands for ‘double data rate’. Data is transferred twice per clock.
• Each location in RAM is called a WORD e.g. data or instruction.

2
Memory Module and its Data
Exchange
• A memory module consists of N words of equal length.
• Each word is assigned a unique numerical address from (0, 1, …, N-1).
• A word of data can be read from or written into the memory.
• The nature of operation is indicated by read and write control signals.
• The location for the operation is specified by an address.

Note: The wide arrows

represent multiple signal
lines, carrying multiple bits
of information in parallel.
3
Memory Module
• RAM is usually accessed in ‘memory
cycles’. Consisting of four system clocks.
• First control signal is delivered to RAM,
then address, RAM decodes address and
places Data on Data bus.
• The data or instructions found in RAM
are usually clustered. (adjacent to other)
• Read: To get data from RAM.
• Write: To store data to RAM.

4
Processor Module and its Data
Exchange
• The processor reads in instructions and data, writes out data after
processing.
• It uses control signals to control the overall operation of the system.
• It also receives interrupt signals and acts on them.

5
 I/O Module and its Data Exchange
(Bridge)
• From the computer’s point of view, I/O is exactly similar to memory.
• There are two operations read and write. It acts as a Bridge.
• An I/O module may control more than one external device.
• We refer to each of the interfaces to an external device as a port and
give each a unique address (e.g., 0, 1, …, M-1).
• An I/O module may be able to send interrupt signals to the processor.

Input Output
Receive data from peripheral Send data to computer
Receive data from computer Send data to peripheral

Internal Data: Data inside system.

Input from device External Data: Data outside system.
6
Types of Data Transfer b/w Computer
Modules
• The interconnection structure must support the following types of
transfer:
1. Memory to processor: The processor reads an instruction or a unit
of data from memory.
2. Processor to memory: The processor writes a unit of data to
memory.
3. I/O to processor: The processor reads data from an I/O device via
an I/O module. (Input)
4. Processor to I/O: The processor sends data to the I/O device. (Out)
5. I/O to or from memory: Direct memory access (DMA) via I/O.
7
Topics to Cover
• 2.1 – A Brief History of Computers
• The First, Second, Third and Later Generations of Computers
• The Von-Neuman Machine
• The IAS Computer
• 2.2 – Designing for Performance
• 2.3 – Multicore Processors
• 2.4 – The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture
• 2.6 - Performance Assessment

8
2.1 A Brief History of Computers
 The First Generation : Vacuum Tubes for digital logic elements and memory.
• Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator (ENIAC)
• Started 1943 (During World War II)
• Eckert and Mauchly were the Developers
• University of Pennsylvania, Professors
• Trajectory tables for weapons, without tables they were useless
• Finished 1946
• Too late for war effort
• Used until 1955
9
ENIAC - Details
• Decimal (not binary)
• 20 accumulators of 10 digits each
• 18,000 vacuum tubes
• 30 tons weight
• 15,000 square feet area
• 140 kW power consumption
• Programmed manually by switches (Drawback)
• 5,000 additions per second

10
Commercial Computers (UNIVAC)
• 1947 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation
• UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)
• US Bureau of Census 1950 calculations
• Became part of Sperry-Rand Corporation
• Late 1950s - UNIVAC II
• Faster
• More memory

11
UNIVAC Series (Investment Plan)
• The UNIVAC II, which had greater memory capacity and higher
performance than the UNIVAC I, was made.
• It illustrated several trends that have remained characteristic of the
computer industry.
• Advances in technology allowed to build larger and powerful systems.
• Second, each company tries to make its new machines backward
compatible with the older machines.
• This means that the program written for the older machines can be
executed on the new machine.
• This strategy is adopted to retain the customer base; that is when a
customer decides to buy a new machine, he buys from same series.
12
IBM Machines
• Punched-card processing equipment
• 1953 - the 701 Series
• IBM’s first stored program computer
• Scientific calculations
• 1955 - the 702 Series
• Business applications
• Lead to 700/7000 series

13
2.1 A Brief History of Computers
 The Second Generation : Transistors (Electronic Switch)
• Replaced vacuum tubes (they generate heat, were bulky, unreliable)
• Invented 1947 at Bell Labs
• Two state device. ON/OFF.
 Transistor Advantages:
• Smaller and Cheaper
• Less heat dissipation
• Solid State device (ON/OFF)
• Made from Silicon (Sand)
14
ALU (Logic Gates) and Memory
(Cells)
• In a ‘digital computer’, only two fundamental types of components
are required: gates and memory cells. Both are made from Transistor.
• Gate is a device that implements a simple Boolean or Logical function
• For example: An AND gate performs If A and B are true then C is True.
• Memory Cell is a device that can store 1-bit of data; e.g. 1 or 0,On/Off

Memory Cells
provide data
storage, whereas
Gates provide data
processing.
15
Improvements in the Second
Generation
• ‘Computer generations’ are classified based on the fundamental
hardware technology employed e.g. transistors.
• Each new generation is characterized by greater processing
performance, larger memory capacity, and smaller size than the
previous one.
• Also the second generation saw the introduction of more complex
arithmetic and logic units and control signals, the use of high level
programming languages, and the provision of system software with
the computer.
• ‘System software’ provide the ability to load programs, move data to
peripherals, and to perform common computations, similar to Windows.
16
Transistor Based Computers
• Second generation machines
• NCR & RCA initially produced small transistor machines
• IBM 7000 series came later
• DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) - 1957
• Produced its first computer PDP-1
• This computer and this company began the mini-computer
phenomenon that became so prominent in the third generation.

17
What is a Computer Program?
• A computer program is a collection of instructions (written in logical
order) that performs a specific task when executed by a computer.
• A computer executes the program's instructions in a central
processing unit (CPU).
• A computer program is usually written by a computer programmer in
a programming language e.g. Assembly language or C++.
• From the program in its human-readable form or source code,
a compiler can derive machine code.
• Machine code—a form consisting of instructions that the computer
can directly execute.
18
The Von Neumann Machine
• The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC was tedious.
• Von-Neuman gave the idea of a stored-program concept and his new
stored-program computer is referred to as the IAS computer.
• Stored-program concept: A program could be represented in a form
suitable for storing in the memory alongside the data.(same memory)
• Then, a computer could get its instructions by reading them from
memory, and a program could be set or altered by setting the values
of a portion of memory.
• The IAS (Institute of Advanced Studies) computer, is the prototype of
all subsequent general-purpose computers.
19
The IAS Computer (See Fig. Next Slide)

• Four main components of the IAS computer are:

1) Main memory 2) ALU 3) Control unit 4) Input/Output (I/O)
1. A main memory, which stores both data and instructions.
2. An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of operating on binary
data.
3. A control unit, which interprets the instructions in memory and
causes them to be executed.
4. Input-Output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit.

20
Structure of the IAS Computer
• Stored Program concept.
• Main memory stores Data
programs and data.
• ALU operates on binary data.
• Control unit interprets
instructions from memory Instructions
and executes them.
• Input and output equipment
is operated by control unit.

21
IAS Structural Components
• Since the device is primarily a computer, it will have to perform the
elementary operation of arithmetic most frequently.
• These are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
• This requires a central arithmetic (CA) part of the device to exist.
• The logical control of the device, that is, the proper sequencing of its
operations, can be most efficiently carried out by a central control
(CC) organ.
• Any device that is to carry out long and complicated sequences of
operations (specifically of calculations) must have a memory (M) unit.

22
IAS Structural Components
• The device must have organs to transfer information from the outside
medium into its specific parts CPU and memory.
• These organs form its input.

• The device must have organs to transfer from its specific parts CPU
and memory into the outside medium.
• These organs form its output.

23
The Von-Neuman IAS Arcthitecture
• All of today’s computers have this same general structure and
function and are thus referred to as von Neumann machines.
• The main memory of the IAS consisted of 4096 storage locations,
called words.
• Each word has a width of 40 binary digits (bits). (4096 x 40 bit words)
• Both data and instructions are stored there as words.
• Numbers are represented in binary form, and each instruction is a
binary code.
• Each number is represented by a sign bit and a 39-bit value.

24
IAS Memory Formats
• A word may also contain two 20-bit instructions.
• Each instruction consisted of an 8-bit operation code (opcode)
specifying the operation to be performed.
• And a 12-bit address designating one of the words in memory
(numbered from 0 to 4095).

25
The ‘Registers’ for ALU and Control
Unit
• The control unit operates the IAS by fetching instructions from
memory and executing them one at a time.
• Both the control unit and the ALU contain storage locations in CPU,
called registers, defined as follows:

ALU Registers: Program Control Unit Registers:

Accumulator (AC) Memory Address Register (MAR)
Multiplier Quotient (MQ) Instruction Register (IR)
Memory Buffer Register (MBR) Instruction Buffer Register (IBR)
Program Counter (PC)

26
ALU Registers
• Memory Buffer Register (MBR): contains a 40-bit word to be stored in
memory or sent to the I/O unit, or is used to receive a word from
memory or from the I/O unit.

• Accumulator (AC) and Multiplier Quotient (MQ): are employed to

hold temporarily operands and results of ALU operations.
• For example, the result of multiplying two 40-bit numbers is an 80-bit
number; the most significant 40 bits are stored in the AC and the least
significant in the MQ.

27
Program Control Unit Registers
• Memory Address Register (MAR): is a 12-bit register that specifies
the address in memory of the word to be written from or read into
the MBR.
• Instruction Register (IR): contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being
executed by the ‘control circuits’ e.g. add, multiply.
• Instruction Buffer Register (IBR): is employed to hold temporarily the
right-hand instruction of 20-bit from a word in Memory. While the left
hand instruction goes to IR and MAR (20-bit).
• Program Counter (PC): contains the address of the next instruction
pair to be fetched from memory.
(Half) 28
Structure

of IAS
40-bits L.H.I R.H.I
Load Add

20-bit
RHI

12-bit 8-bit
Address Opcode
Add

29
Steps of ‘Instruction Cycle’: Fetch-
Decode-Execute
• To execute a program, the program code is copied from secondary
storage into the main memory.
• In a program, each machine code instruction takes up a slot in the
main memory.
• These slots (or memory locations) each have a unique memory
address.
• The CPU's program counter is set to the memory location where the
first instruction in the program has been stored and execution begins.
• PC register tells the CPU the order of instructions, program is running.
• When a program is being executed, the CPU repeats this cycle again.
30
What is an ‘Instruction Cycle’?
• An instruction cycle (sometimes called a fetch–decode–
execute cycle) is the basic operational process of a computer.
• Each ‘instruction cycle’ consists of two sub cycles,
1) Fetch cycle 2) Execute cycle
• Instruction cycle is the process by which a computer retrieves a
program instruction from its memory called fetch cycle.
• Then it determines what actions the instruction dictates, and carries
out those actions called execute cycle.

31
Instruction Cycle
• The processing required for a single instruction is called an instruction
cycle.
• Instruction cycle two steps are referred to as the:
• 1) Fetch cycle 2) Execute cycle
• Fetch cycle is the process by which a computer retrieves a
program instruction from its memory.
• Then it determines what actions the instruction dictates, and carries
out those actions called execute cycle.

32
The Operation of the IAS (Fetch
Cycle)
• The IAS operates by repetitively performing an instruction cycle.
• Each ‘instruction cycle’ consists of two sub cycles, fetch cycle and
execute cycle.
During the fetch cycle, the opcode of the next instruction is loaded
into the IR and the address portion is loaded into the MAR.
• This instruction may be taken from the IBR, or it can be obtained
from memory by loading a word into the MBR, and then down to the
IBR, IR and MAR.

33
The Operation of the IAS (Execute
Cycle)
• Once the opcode is in the IR, the execute cycle is performed.

The ‘control circuitry’ interprets the opcode and executes the

instruction by sending out the appropriate control signals to cause the
data to be moved or an operation to be performed by the ALU.

• For Example: The opcode: 00000101 is interpreted by the ‘control

circuit’ as ADD M(X), and it Adds M(X) to AC; and puts the result in
AC.

34
Operations Performed by IAS
Instructions
• The IAS computer had a total of 21 instructions.
• These instructions can be grouped as follows:
• Data transfer: Move data between memory and ALU registers.
• Unconditional branch: Normally, the control unit executes instruction
in sequence from memory. This sequence can be changed by a branch
instruction, which facilitates repetitive operations.
• Conditional branch: The branch can be made dependent on a
condition, thus allowing decision points.
• Arithmetic: Operations performed by the ALU.
• Address modify: Permits address to be computed in the ALU and then
inserted into instructions stored in memory. Flexible Addressing.
35
The IAS Instructions
• The ‘opcode’ portion (first 8 bits) specify which of the 21 instructions
is to be executed. The ‘address’ portion (remaining 12 bits) specifies
which of the 4096 memory locations is to be involved in the execution
of the instruction.
• All of the 21 IAS instructions are categorized as follows:
• Data transfer: LOAD, STORE.
8-bit 12-bit
• Unconditional branch: JUMP.
• Conditional branch: JUMP+Condition.
• Arithmetic: ADD, SUB, MUL, DIV, LSH, RSH.
• Address modify: STOR
36
The IAS Instruction Set (Arithmetic)

37
Harvard Architecture
• Under pure von Neumann architecture the CPU can be either reading
an instruction or reading/writing data from/to the memory. Both
cannot occur at the same time since the instructions and data use the
same bus system. In a computer using the Harvard architecture, the
CPU can both read an instruction and perform a data memory access
at the same time, even without a cache. A Harvard architecture
computer can thus be faster for a given circuit complexity because
instruction fetches and data access do not contend for a single
memory pathway.

38
The Third Generation: Integrated
Circuits (ICs)
• A single transistor is a discrete component.
• Throughout the 1950 these discrete components were manufactured
separately, packaged in their own containers, and soldered together
onto circuit boards, which were then installed in computers. The
addition of a new transistor has to be soldered again on circuit board.
• The entire manufacturing process, from transistor to circuit board,
was expensive and cumbersome.
• In 1958 came the achievement that revolutionized electronics and
started the era of electronics: the invention of the integrated circuit.
• It is the integrated circuit that defines the third generation of
computers.
39
Gates and Memory Cells Skip
• In a ‘digital computer’, only two fundamental types of components
are required: gates and memory cells.
• Gate is a device that implements a simple Boolean or Logical function
• For example: An AND gate performs If A and B are true then C is True.
• Memory Cell is a device that can store 1-bit of data; e.g. 1 or 0,On/Off

Memory Cells
provide data
storage, whereas
Gates provide data
processing.
40
Micro-Electronics
• Literally means “small electronics” has tremendously improved speed.
• There has been a consistent trend toward the reduction in size of
digital electronic circuits thus leading to ‘microelectronics’.
• A computer is made up of (logic) gates, memory (storage) cells and
interconnections. Both of them are made from transistors.
• The integrated circuit uses the fact that such components, and paths
can be fabricated onto a semiconductor such as Silicon wafer (Chip).
• To fabricate an entire circuit in a tiny piece of silicon, in this way many
transistors can be produced at one time on a single wafer of silicon.

41
Relationship among Wafer, Chip,
and Gate
• A thin wafer of silicon is divided
into a matrix of small areas, a few
millimetres square.
• The identical circuit pattern is
fabricated in each area, and then
wafer is broken up into chips.
• Each chip consists of many gates
and/or memory cells.
• These chips can be connected on
a PCB to produce complex circuits.
42
Growth in Transistor Count on IC’s
• Initially, only a few gates or memory cells could be built on an IC.
• As time went on, the growth of these components on an IC increased.

(SSI)
(LSI)
(VLSI)
(ULSI)

43
Moore’s Law
• Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, in 1965 presented his famous law.
• Moore observed that the number of transistors that could be put on
a single chip was doubling every year (12 months).
• Furthermore he predicted that this pace would continue into the near
future. Predicted increased density of components on a single chip.
• To the surprise of many, the pace continued year after year and
decade after decade.
• The pace slowed to a doubling every 18 months in the 1970s but has
sustained that rate ever since.

44
Consequences of Moore’s Law
• The consequences of Moore’s lawFabrication
are profound:
cost is same.
1. Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged during this period of
rapid growth in chip density. Cost of Logic and memory has fallen.
2. Because logic and other memory elements are placed closer
together on more densely packed chips, the electrical path is
shortened, increasing operating speed.
3. The computer size becomes smaller giving increased flexibility.
4. There is a reduction in power and cooling requirements.
5. The interconnections between components on the IC are much
more reliable. An IC as a whole provides only a single connection.
45
Growth in CPU Transistor Count

46
Preparatory Questions (Week 2)
• Q1. What is a ‘stored program’ computer?
• Q2. Define ‘ALU Registers’ of the IAS?
• Q3. Define ‘Program Control Unit Registers’ of the IAS?
• Q4. Define the structure of IAS computer in detail?
• Q5. Explain the consequences of Moore’s law?

47
Next Class Topics
• Later Generations
• 2.2 Designing for Performance
• 2.3 Multicore Processors
• 2.4 The Evolution of Intel Architecture
• 2.6 Performance Assessment
• --

48