Lecture 11 - 12

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Steel Structures
Lecture No. 11 & 12

Design loads on bridge, load factors in LRFD and


review of structural analysis

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Design loads on bridges

Vertical Transversal Longitudinal

Dead loads Wind Wind

Live loads Earthquake Earthquake

Impact loads Lateral Shocks Braking

Thermal

Friction
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Roadway design loadings
1. Dead load
Dead load on bridges consists of the
self-weight of the superstructure
plus the weight of other items
carried by the bridge such as utility
pipes which may be carried on the
sides or underneath the deck.

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The self-weight of the superstructure consists of the
deck, including the wearing surface, sidewalks, curbs,
parapets, railings, stringers, cross girders, and main
girders.

wearing surface

deck

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2. Live load
Live loads on bridges are caused by the traffic crossing the bridge. Design live
loads are usually specified by relevant design codes in the form of equivalent
traffic loads.

i. Truck loads

This load is intended to represent


the extreme effects of heavy
vehicles.

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ii. Longitudinal Tractive forces

• The term longitudinal forces refer to


forces that act in the direction of the
longitudinal axis of the bridge; i.e., in
the direction of traffic.

• These forces develop as a result of the


braking effort (sudden stopping) , or
the tractive effort (sudden
acceleration).

• In both cases, the vehicle’s inertia


force is transferred to the bridge deck
through friction between the deck and
the wheels.
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iii. Centrifugal forces

• When a body moves along a curved path


with a constant speed, the body is
subjected to a horizontal transversal force
due to centrifugal acceleration and acts
perpendicular to the tangent to the path.

• Curved bridges are therefore subjected to


centrifugal forces applied by the vehicles
that travel on them.

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iv. Sidewalks

Many highway bridges, in urban and


non-urban areas, have sidewalks
(footpaths) for pedestrian traffic.

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Railway design loadings
1. Dead load
Superimposed dead loads on
railway bridges usually include the
rails, the sleepers, the ballast (or
any other mean for transmission of
train loads to the structural
elements), and the drainage system.

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2. Train load

Load of moving train.

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3. Longitudinal Braking and Tractive Forces

These forces, which equals 1/7 of the


maximum live loads (without impact)
supported by one track only, are
considered as acting at rail level in a
direction parallel to the tracks,

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4. Centripetal forces

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Load factors considered in LRFD method
𝛾𝑖 𝑄 𝑖 ≤ 𝜙 𝑅 𝑛

a load factor

a load effect strength


(force or
moment) resistance
factor

The factored resistance f is called the design strength.


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𝛾𝑖 𝑄 𝑖 ≤ 𝜙 𝑅 𝑛

The summation on the left side of Equation is over the total number
of load effects (including, but not limited to, dead load and live load),
where each load effect can be associated with a different load factor.

Not only can each load effect have a different load factor but also
the value of the load factor for a particular load effect will depend on
the combination of loads under consideration.

Equation can also be written in the form

𝑅𝑢 ≤ 𝜙 𝑅𝑛

Required strength = sum of factored load effects (forces or moment) 15


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• In combinations 3, 4, and 5, the load factor on L can be reduced to 0.5 if L is no
greater than 100 pounds per square foot, except for garages or places of public
assembly.
• In combinations with wind or earthquake loads, you should use a direction that
produces the worst effects.

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The load factor for a particular load effect is not the same in all load
combinations. For example, in combination 2 the load factor for the
live load L is 1.6, whereas in combination 3, it is 1. The reason is
that the live load is being taken as the dominant effect in
combination 2, and one of the three effects, Lr , S, or R, will be
dominant in combination 3.

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Review of analysis of structural members

• While designing the structural members, the designer should


have the knowledge of structural analysis.

• While looking at the loading conditions on structural members,


the designer should know the point of maximum bending
moment, maximum shear stress and deflection (with their
magnitude).
• The structural members are always designed for the worst case
i.e., at maximum bending moment, maximum shear stress and
maximum deflection

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P

L
P/2 P/2

P/2 Max: S.F = P/2

P/2

SFD
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P

L
P/2 P/2

PL/4 Max: B.M = PL/4

BMD

Max: Deflection =
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w (lbs/ft)

wL/2 wL/2

wL/2
Max: S.F = wL/2

wL/2

SFD

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w (lbs/ft)

wL/2 wL/2

Max: BM =

Max: Deflection=
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