Chapter 6 Methods

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 Objectives
 To define methods with formal parameters (§6.2).
 To invoke methods with actual parameters (i.e., arguments) (§6.2).
 To define methods with a return value (§6.3).
 To define methods without a return value (§6.4).
 To pass arguments by value (§6.5).
 To develop reusable code that is modular, easy to read, easy to debug,
and easy to maintain (§6.6).
 To write a method that converts hexadecimals to decimals (§6.7).
 To use method overloading and understand ambiguous overloading
(§6.8).
 To determine the scope of variables (§6.9).
 To apply the concept of method abstraction in software development
(§6.10).
 To design and implement methods using stepwise refinement (§6.10).
Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Defining Methods

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Defining Methods
A method is a collection of statements that are
grouped together to perform an operation.
Define a method Invoke a method

int z = max(x, y);

public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
actual parameters
int result; (arguments)

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1;
else
result = num2;

return result;
}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Defining Methods
A method is a collection of statements that are
grouped together to perform an operation.
Define a method Invoke a method

return value method formal

modifier type name parameters
int z = max(x, y);
method
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
header
actual parameters
int result; (arguments)
method
body parameter list
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
else
method
result = num2; signature

return result; return value

}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 Method Signature
Method signature is the combination of the method name and the
parameter list.

Define a method Invoke a method

return value method formal

modifier type name parameters
int z = max(x, y);
method
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
header
actual parameters
int result; (arguments)
method
body parameter list
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
else
method
result = num2; signature

return result; return value

}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 Formal Parameters
The variables defined in the method header are known as
formal parameters.

Define a method Invoke a method

return value method formal

modifier type name parameters
int z = max(x, y);
method
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
header
actual parameters
int result; (arguments)
method
body parameter list
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
else
method
result = num2; signature

return result; return value

}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 Actual Parameters
When a method is invoked, you pass a value to the parameter. This
value is referred to as actual parameter or argument.

Define a method Invoke a method

return value method formal

modifier type name parameters
int z = max(x, y);
method
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
header
actual parameters
int result; (arguments)
method
body parameter list
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
else
method
result = num2; signature

return result; return value

}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Return Value Type
A method may return a value. The returnValueType is the data type
of the value the method returns. If the method does not return a
value, the returnValueType is the keyword void. For example, the
returnValueType in the main method is void.
Define a method Invoke a method

return value method formal

modifier type name parameters
int z = max(x, y);
method
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
header
actual parameters
int result; (arguments)
method
body parameter list
if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
else
method
result = num2; signature

return result; return value

}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Calling Methods

pass the value of i

pass the value of j

public static void main(String[] args) { public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int i = 5; int result;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j); if (num1 > num2)
result = num1;
System.out.println( else
"The maximum between " + i + result = num2;
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} return result;
}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 CAUTION
A return statement is required for a value-returning method. The
method shown below in (a) is logically correct, but it has a
compilation error because the Java compiler thinks it possible that
this method does not return any value.
public static int sign(int n) { public static int sign(int n) {
if (n > 0) Should be if (n > 0)
return 1; return 1;
else if (n == 0) else if (n == 0)
return 0; return 0;
else if (n < 0) else
return –1; return –1;
} }
(a) (b)

To fix this problem, delete if (n < 0) in (a), so that the compiler

will see a return statement to be reached regardless of how the if
statement is evaluated.
Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 Reuse Methods from Other Classes
NOTE: One of the benefits of methods is for reuse. The max
method can be invoked from any class besides TestMax. If
you create a new class Test, you can invoke the static method
max using ClassName.methodName (e.g., TestMax.max).

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 Call Stacks
Each time a method is invoked, the system creates an activation record (also
called an activation frame) that stores parameters and variables for the method and
places the activation record in an area of memory known as a call stack. A call
stack is also known as an execution stack, runtime stack, or machine stack, and it
is often shortened to just “the stack.” When a method calls another method, the
caller’s activation record is kept intact, and a new activation record is created for
the new method called. When a method finishes its work and returns to its caller,
its activation record is removed from the call stack.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 Trace Call Stack
i is declared and initialized

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k);
}

public static int max(int num1, int num2) {

int result; i: 5

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1; The main method
else is invoked.
result = num2;
return result;
}

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 Trace Call Stack
j is declared and initialized

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k);
}

public static int max(int num1, int num2) { j: 2

int result; i: 5

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1; The main method
else is invoked.
result = num2;
return result;
}

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 Trace Call Stack
Declare k

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} Space required for the
main method
k:
public static int max(int num1, int num2) { j: 2
int result; i: 5

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1; The main method
else is invoked.
result = num2;
return result;
}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Trace Call Stack
Invoke max(i, j)

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} Space required for the
main method
k:
public static int max(int num1, int num2) { j: 2
int result; i: 5

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1; The main method
else is invoked.
result = num2;
return result;
}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Trace Call Stack
pass the values of i and j to num1
and num2

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k); num2: 2
} num1: 5
Space required for the
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result; main method
k:
if (num1 > num2) j: 2
result = num1; i: 5
else
result = num2;
return result; The max method is
} invoked.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Trace Call Stack
Declare result

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i + result:
" and " + j + " is " + k); num2: 2
} num1: 5
Space required for the
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result; main method
k:
if (num1 > num2) j: 2
result = num1; i: 5
else
result = num2;
return result; The max method is
} invoked.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Trace Call Stack
(num1 > num2) is true

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i + result:
" and " + j + " is " + k); num2: 2
} num1: 5
Space required for the
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result; main method
k:
if (num1 > num2) j: 2
result = num1; i: 5
else
result = num2;
return result; The max method is
} invoked.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Trace Call Stack
Assign num1 to result

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
Space required for the
System.out.println( max method
"The maximum between " + i + result: 5
" and " + j + " is " + k); num2: 2
} num1: 5
Space required for the
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result; main method
k:
if (num1 > num2) j: 2
result = num1; i: 5
else
result = num2;
return result; The max method is
} invoked.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Trace Call Stack
Return result and assign it to k

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
Space required for the
System.out.println( max method
"The maximum between " + i + result: 5
" and " + j + " is " + k); num2: 2
} num1: 5
Space required for the
public static int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result; main method
k:5
if (num1 > num2) j: 2
result = num1; i: 5
else
result = num2;
return result; The max method is
} invoked.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Trace Call Stack
Execute print statement

public static void main(String[] args) {

int i = 5;
int j = 2;
int k = max(i, j);
System.out.println(
"The maximum between " + i +
" and " + j + " is " + k);
} Space required for the
main method
k:5
public static int max(int num1, int num2) { j: 2
int result; i: 5

if (num1 > num2)

result = num1; The main method
else is invoked.
result = num2;
return result;
}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 void Method Example

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All rights reserved.
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 Passing Parameters

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Pass by Value
When you invoke a method with an
argument, the value of the argument is
passed to the parameter. This is referred to
as pass-by-value. If the argument is a
variable rather than a literal value, the value
of the variable is passed to the parameter.
The variable is not affected, regardless of
the changes made to the parameter inside
the method

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Pass by Value

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All rights reserved.
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 Pass by Value

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All rights reserved.
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 Pass by Value, cont.

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All rights reserved.
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 Overloading Methods
 Overloading methods enables you to define the methods
with the same name as long as their signatures are
different.
 The max method that was used earlier works only with the
int data type. But what if you need to determine which of
two floating-point numbers has the maximum value? The
solution is to create another method with the same name
but different parameters, as shown in the following code:

public static double max(double num1, double num2) {

if (num1 > num2)
return num1;
else
return num2;
}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 Ambiguous Invocation
 The Java compiler determines which method to
use based on the method signature.
 Sometimes there may be two or more possible
matches for an invocation of a method, but the
compiler cannot determine the most specific
match. This is referred to as ambiguous
invocation. Ambiguous invocation is a compile
error.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Ambiguous Invocation

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Scope of Local Variables
A local variable: a variable defined inside a
method.
Scope: the part of the program where the
variable can be referenced.
The scope of a local variable starts from its
declaration and continues to the end of the
block that contains the variable. A local
variable must be declared before it can be
used.
Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 Scope of Local Variables, cont.
You can declare a local variable with the
same name multiple times in different non-
nesting blocks in a method, but you cannot
declare a local variable twice in nested
blocks.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Scope of Local Variables, cont.
A variable declared in the initial action part of a for loop
header has its scope in the entire loop. But a variable
declared inside a for loop body has its scope limited in the
loop body from its declaration and to the end of the block
that contains the variable.
public static void method1() {
.
.
for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
.
The scope of i .
int j;
.
The scope of j .
.
}
}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
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 Scope of Local Variables, cont.

It is fine to declare i in two It is wrong to declare i in

non-nesting blocks two nesting blocks

public static void method1() { public static void method2() {

int x = 1;
int y = 1; int i = 1;
int sum = 0;
for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
x += i; for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
} sum += i;
}
for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
y += i; }
}
}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Scope of Local Variables, cont.
// Fine with no errors
public static void correctMethod() {
int x = 1;
int y = 1;
// i is declared
for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
x += i;
}
// i is declared again
for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
y += i;
}
} Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Scope of Local Variables, cont.
// With errors
public static void incorrectMethod() {
int x = 1;
int y = 1;
for (int i = 1; i < 10; i++) {
int x = 0;
x += i;
}
}

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
38
 Method Abstraction
You can think of the method body as a black box
that contains the detailed implementation for the
method.
Optional arguments Optional return
for Input value

Method Header
Black Box
Method body

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
39
 Benefits of Methods
• Write a method once and reuse it anywhere.
• Information hiding. Hide the implementation
from the user.
• Reduce complexity.

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
40
 Case Study: Generating Random
Characters
Computer programs process numerical data and characters.
You have seen many examples that involve numerical
data. It is also important to understand characters and how
to process them.
As introduced in Section 4.3, each character has a unique
Unicode between 0 and FFFF in hexadecimal (65535 in
decimal). To generate a random character is to generate a
random integer between 0 and 65535 using the following
expression: (note that since 0 <= Math.random() < 1.0, you
have to add 1 to 65535.)
(int)(Math.random() * (65535 + 1))

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Case Study: Generating Random
Characters, cont.
Now let us consider how to generate a random
lowercase letter. The Unicode for lowercase letters
are consecutive integers starting from the Unicode
for 'a', then for 'b', 'c', ..., and 'z'. The Unicode for
'a' is
(int)'a'
So, a random integer between (int)'a' and (int)'z' is
(int)((int)'a' + Math.random() * ((int)'z' - (int)'a' + 1)

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
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 Case Study: Generating Random
Characters, cont.
As discussed in Chapter 2, all numeric operators
can be applied to the char operands. The char
operand is cast into a number if the other operand
is a number or a character. So, the preceding
expression can be simplified as follows:
'a' + Math.random() * ('z' - 'a' + 1)

So a random lowercase letter is

(char)('a' + Math.random() * ('z' - 'a' + 1))
Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
43
 Case Study: Generating Random
Characters, cont.
To generalize the foregoing discussion, a random character
between any two characters ch1 and ch2 with ch1 < ch2
can be generated as follows:

(char)(ch1 + Math.random() * (ch2 – ch1 + 1))

Liang, Introduction to Java Programming, Eleventh Edition, (c) 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
All rights reserved.
44
 The RandomCharacter Class
// RandomCharacter.java: Generate random characters
public class RandomCharacter {
/** Generate a random character between ch1 and ch2 */
public static char getRandomCharacter(char ch1, char ch2) {
return (char)(ch1 + Math.random() * (ch2 - ch1 + 1));
}

/** Generate a random lowercase letter */

public static char getRandomLowerCaseLetter() {
return getRandomCharacter('a', 'z');
}

/** Generate a random uppercase letter */

public static char getRandomUpperCaseLetter() {
return getRandomCharacter('A', 'Z');
}

/** Generate a random digit character */

public static char getRandomDigitCharacter() {
return getRandomCharacter('0', '9');
}

/** Generate a random character */

public static char getRandomCharacter() {
return getRandomCharacter('\u0000', '\uFFFF');
}
}
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All rights reserved.
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The TestRandomCharacter Class

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All rights reserved.
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