Data Mining:

Concepts and
Techniques

1
 Data Cube Technology

 Data Cube Computation: Preliminary Concepts

 Data Cube Computation Methods

 Processing Advanced Queries by Exploring

Data Cube Technology

 Multidimensional Data Analysis in Cube Space

 Summary

2
 Data Cube: A Lattice of
Cuboids
all
0-D(apex) cuboid

time item location supplier

1-D cuboids

time,location item,location location,supplier

2-D cuboids
time,item time,supplier item,supplier

time,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,locationtime,item,supplier item,location,supplier

4-D(base) cuboid

time, item, location, supplierc

3
 Data Cube: A Lattice of Cuboids
all
0-D(apex) cuboid
time item location supplier
1-D cuboids
time,item time,location item,location location,supplier
time,supplier item,supplier 2-D cuboids
time,location,supplier

time,item,location item,location,supplier
3-D cuboids
time,item,supplier

time, item, location, supplier 4-D(base) cuboid

 Base vs. aggregate cells; ancestor vs. descendant cells; parent vs. child
cells
1. (9/15, milk, Urbana, Dairy_land)
2. (9/15, milk, Urbana, *)
3. (*, milk, Urbana, *)
4. (*, milk, Urbana, *)
5. (*, milk, Chicago, *)
6. (*, milk, *, *)
4
 Cube Materialization:
Full Cube vs. Iceberg Cube
 Full cube vs. iceberg cube
compute cube sales iceberg as
select month, city, customer group, count(*)
iceberg from salesInfo
condition cube by month, city, customer group
having count(*) >= min support

 Computing only the cuboid cells whose measure satisfies the

iceberg condition
 Only a small portion of cells may be “above the water’’ in a
sparse cube
 Avoid explosive growth: A cube with 100 dimensions

 2 base cells: (a1, a2, …., a100), (b1, b2, …, b100)


How many aggregate cells if “having count >= 1”?

What about “having count >= 2”?
5
 Iceberg Cube, Closed Cube & Cube
Shell
 Is iceberg cube good enough?
 2 base cells: {(a1, a2, a3 . . . , a100):10, (a1, a2, b3, . . . , b100):10}

How many cells will the iceberg cube have if having count(*)
>= 10? Hint: A huge but tricky number!
 Close cube:

Closed cell c: if there exists no cell d, s.t. d is a descendant of
c, and d has the same measure value as c.

Closed cube: a cube consisting of only closed cells

What is the closed cube of the above base cuboid? Hint: only
3 cells
 Cube Shell

Precompute only the cuboids involving a small # of
dimensions, e.g., 3
For (A1, A2, … A10), how many combinations to

More dimension combinations will need to be computed on
compute?
the fly
6
 Roadmap for Efficient
Computation
 General cube computation heuristics (Agarwal et al.’96)
 Computing full/iceberg cubes: 3 methodologies

Bottom-Up: Multi-Way array aggregation (Zhao, Deshpande &
Naughton, SIGMOD’97)

Top-down:

BUC (Beyer & Ramarkrishnan, SIGMOD’99)

H-cubing technique (Han, Pei, Dong & Wang: SIGMOD’01)

Integrating Top-Down and Bottom-Up:

Star-cubing algorithm (Xin, Han, Li & Wah: VLDB’03)
 High-dimensional OLAP: A Minimal Cubing Approach (Li, et al.
VLDB’04)
 Computing alternative kinds of cubes:

Partial cube, closed cube, approximate cube, etc.
7
 General Heuristics (Agarwal et al.
VLDB’96)
 Sorting, hashing, and grouping operations are applied to the
dimension attributes in order to reorder and cluster related
tuples
 Aggregates may be computed from previously computed
aggregates, rather than from the base fact table

Smallest-child: computing a cuboid from the smallest,
previously computed cuboid

Cache-results: caching results of a cuboid from which
other cuboids are computed to reduce disk I/Os

Amortize-scans: computing as many as possible cuboids
at the same time to amortize disk reads

Share-sorts: sharing sorting costs cross multiple cuboids
when sort-based method is used

Share-partitions: sharing the partitioning cost across
multiple cuboids when hash-based algorithms are used 8
 Data Cube Technology

 Data Cube Computation: Preliminary Concepts

 Data Cube Computation Methods

 Processing Advanced Queries by Exploring

Data Cube Technology

 Multidimensional Data Analysis in Cube Space

 Summary

9
 Data Cube Computation
Methods

 Multi-Way Array Aggregation

 BUC

 Star-Cubing

 High-Dimensional OLAP

10
 Multi-Way Array Aggregation
All
 Array-based “bottom-up”
algorithm
A B C
 Using multi-dimensional chunks
 No direct tuple comparisons
AB AC BC
 Simultaneous aggregation on
multiple dimensions
ABC
 Intermediate aggregate values are
re-used for computing ancestor
cuboids
 Cannot do Apriori pruning: No
iceberg optimization
11
Multi-way Array Aggregation for Cube
Computation (MOLAP)
 Partition arrays into chunks (a small subcube which fits in memory).
 Compressed sparse array addressing: (chunk_id, offset)
 Compute aggregates in “multiway” by visiting cube cells in the order
which minimizes the # of times to visit each cell, and reduces
memory access and storage cost.

C c3 61
c2 45
62 63 64
46 47 48
c1 29 30 31 32 What is the best
c0
b3 B13 14 15 16 60 traversing order
44
9
28 56 to do multi-way
b2
B 40
24 52 aggregation?
b1 5 36
20
b0 1 2 3 4
a0 a1 a2 a3
A 12
Multi-way Array Aggregation for Cube
Computation (3-D to 2-D)
All

A B C

a ll
AB AC BC

A B C

ABC
AB AC BC

 The best order is

ABC
the one that
minimizes the
memory
requirement and
reduced I/Os
13
Multi-way Array Aggregation for Cube
Computation (2-D to 1-D)

All

A B C

AB AC BC

ABC
14
Multi-Way Array Aggregation for Cube
Computation (Method Summary)
 Method: the planes should be sorted and
computed according to their size in ascending
order
 Idea: keep the smallest plane in the main
memory, fetch and compute only one chunk at
a time for the largest plane
 Limitation of the method: computing well only for
a small number of dimensions
 If there are a large number of dimensions, “top-
down” computation and iceberg cube
computation methods can be explored
15
 Data Cube Computation
Methods

 Multi-Way Array Aggregation

 BUC

 Star-Cubing

 High-Dimensional OLAP

16
 Bottom-Up Computation (BUC)
a ll

 BUC (Beyer & Ramakrishnan,

SIGMOD’99)
A B C D

 Bottom-up cube computation AB AC AD BC BD CD

(Note: top-down in our view!) ABC ABD ACD BCD

 Divides dimensions into

partitions and facilitates ABCD

iceberg pruning 1 a ll


If a partition does not satisfy 2 A 10 B 14 C 16 D

min_sup, its descendants

can be pruned 3 AB 7 AC 9 AD 11 BC 13 BD 15 C D


If minsup = 1  compute
full CUBE!
4 ABC 6 ABD 8 ACD 12 BC D

 No simultaneous aggregation
5 ABCD
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 BUC: Partitioning
 Usually, entire data set
can’t fit in main memory
 Sort distinct values

partition into blocks that fit
 Continue processing
 Optimizations

Partitioning

External Sorting, Hashing, Counting Sort

Ordering dimensions to encourage pruning

Cardinality, Skew, Correlation

Collapsing duplicates

Can’t do holistic aggregates anymore!
18
 Data Cube Computation
Methods

 Multi-Way Array Aggregation

 BUC

 Star-Cubing

 High-Dimensional OLAP

19
 Star-Cubing: An Integrating
Method
 D. Xin, J. Han, X. Li, B. W. Wah, Star-Cubing: Computing Iceberg
Cubes by Top-Down and Bottom-Up Integration, VLDB'03
 Explore shared dimensions
 E.g., dimension A is the shared dimension of ACD and AD
 ABD/AB means cuboid ABD has shared dimensions AB
 Allows for shared computations
 e.g., cuboid AB is computed simultaneously as ABD
C /C D
 Aggregate in a top-down
manner but with the
A C /A C A D /A B C /B C B D /B CD
bottom-up sub-layer
underneath which will allow A C D /A
A B C /A B C A B D /A B BCD
Apriori pruning
 Shared dimensions grow in A B C D /a ll
bottom-up fashion 20
Iceberg Pruning in Shared Dimensions

 Anti-monotonic property of shared dimensions

 If the measure is anti-monotonic, and if the
aggregate value on a shared dimension does
not satisfy the iceberg condition, then all the
cells extended from this shared dimension
cannot satisfy the condition either
 Intuition: if we can compute the shared dimensions
before the actual cuboid, we can use them to do
Apriori pruning
 Problem: how to prune while still aggregate
simultaneously on multiple dimensions?

21
 Cell Trees

 Use a tree structure

similar to H-tree to
represent cuboids
 Collapses common
prefixes to save memory
 Keep count at node
 Traverse the tree to
retrieve a particular tuple

22
Star Attributes and Star Nodes
 Intuition: If a single-dimensional
aggregate on an attribute value p
does not satisfy the iceberg
A B C D Count
condition, it is useless to
a1 b1 c1 d1 1
distinguish them during the
a1 b1 c4 d3 1
iceberg computation
a1 b2 c2 d2 1
 E.g., b2, b3, b4, c1, c2, c4, d1, d2, a2 b3 c3 d4 1
d3 a2 b4 c3 d4 1
 Solution: Replace such attributes
by a *. Such attributes are star
attributes, and the corresponding
nodes in the cell tree are star
nodes 23
 Example: Star Reduction
A B C D Count
 Suppose minsup = 2
a1 b1 * * 1
 Perform one-dimensional a1 b1 * * 1
aggregation. Replace attribute a1 * * * 1
values whose count < 2 with *. a2 * c3 d4 1
And collapse all *’s together a2 * c3 d4 1
 Resulting table has all such
attributes replaced with the
star-attribute A B C D Count
a1 b1 * * 2
 With regards to the iceberg
a1 * * * 1
computation, this new table is a
a2 * c3 d4 2
lossless compression of the
original table
24
 Star Tree
A B C D Count
 Given the new compressed a1 b1 * * 2

table, it is possible to a1 * * * 1
a2 * c3 d4 2
construct the
corresponding cell tree—
called star tree
 Keep a star table at the
side for easy lookup of star
attributes
 The star tree is a lossless
compression of the original
cell tree
25
Star-Cubing Algorithm—DFS on Lattice
Tree

a ll
BC D : 51

A /A B /B C /C D /D
b* : 3 3 b1 : 2 6

ro o t: 5
c* : 1 4 c3 : 2 1 1 c* : 2 7
A B /A B A C /A C A D /A B C /B C B D /B CD
a1: 3 a2: 2
d* : 1 5 d4 : 2 1 2 d* : 2 8

A B C /A B C A B D /A B A C D /A BCD
b* : 1 b1 : 2 b* : 2

c* : 1 c* : 2 c3 : 2
ABCD

d* : 1 d* : 2 d4 : 2

26
 Multi-Way BCD A C D /A A B D /A B A B C /A B C

Aggregation
ABCD

27
 B C DDFS
Star-Cubing Algorithm— A C D /A onA B DStar-
/A B A B C /A B C

Tree
ABCD

28
 Multi-Way Star-Tree
BCD A C D /A A B D /A B A B C /A B C

Aggregation
ABCD

 Start depth-first search at the root of the base star tree

 At each new node in the DFS, create corresponding star tree that are
descendants of the current tree according to the integrated traversal
ordering
 E.g., in the base tree, when DFS reaches a1, the ACD/A tree is created
 When DFS reaches b*, the ABD/AD tree is created
 The counts in the base tree are carried over to the new trees
 When DFS reaches a leaf node (e.g., d*), start backtracking
 On every backtracking branch, the count in the corresponding trees are
output, the tree is destroyed, and the node in the base tree is destroyed
 Example
 When traversing from d* back to c*, the a1b*c*/a1b*c* tree is output
and destroyed
 When traversing from c* back to b*, the a1b*D/a1b* tree is output and
destroyed
 When at b*, jump to b1 and repeat similar process
29
 Data Cube Computation
Methods

 Multi-Way Array Aggregation

 BUC

 Star-Cubing

 High-Dimensional OLAP

30
 The Curse of Dimensionality

 None of the previous cubing method can handle

high dimensionality!
 A database of 600k tuples. Each dimension has
cardinality of 100 and zipf of 2.

31
 Motivation of High-D OLAP

 X. Li, J. Han, and H. Gonzalez, High-Dimensional

OLAP: A Minimal Cubing Approach, VLDB'04
 Challenge to current cubing methods:
 The “curse of dimensionality’’ problem

 Iceberg cube and compressed cubes: only

delay the inevitable explosion

 Full materialization: still significant overhead in

accessing results on disk

 High-D OLAP is needed in applications
 Science and engineering analysis

 Bio-data analysis: thousands of genes

 Statistical surveys: hundreds of variables

32
 Fast High-D OLAP with Minimal
Cubing

 Observation: OLAP occurs only on a small subset of

dimensions at a time
 Semi-Online Computational Model
1. Partition the set of dimensions into shell
fragments
2. Compute data cubes for each shell fragment while
retaining inverted indices or value-list indices
3. Given the pre-computed fragment cubes,
dynamically compute cube cells of the high-
dimensional data cube online
33
 Properties of Proposed Method

 Partitions the data vertically

 Reduces high-dimensional cube into a set of
lower dimensional cubes
 Online re-construction of original high-
dimensional space
 Lossless reduction
 Offers tradeoffs between the amount of pre-
processing and the speed of online computation

34
 Example Computation
 Let the cube aggregation function be count

tid A B C D E
1 a1 b1 c1 d1 e1
2 a1 b2 c1 d2 e1
3 a1 b2 c1 d1 e2
4 a2 b1 c1 d1 e2
5 a2 b1 c1 d1 e3

 Divide the 5 dimensions into 2 shell fragments:

 (A, B, C) and (D, E)

35
 1-D Inverted Indices
 Build traditional invert index or RID list

Attribute Value TID List List Size

a1 123 3
a2 45 2
b1 145 3
b2 23 2
c1 12345 5
d1 1345 4
d2 2 1
e1 12 2
e2 34 2
e3 5 1

36
 Shell Fragment Cubes: Ideas
 Generalize the 1-D inverted indices to multi-dimensional
ones in the data cube sense
 Compute all cuboids for data cubes ABC and DE while
retaining the inverted indices
 For example, shell Cell Intersection TID List List Size
fragment cube ABC a1 b1 1 2 3 1 4 5 1 1
contains 7 cuboids:
a1 b2 1 2 3 2 3 23 2
 A, B, C
a2 b1  4 5  1 4 5 45 2
 AB, AC, BC

 ABC
a2 b2 4 5  2 3  0


 This completes the offline
computation stage 
 37
 Shell Fragment Cubes: Size and
Design
 Given a database of T tuples, D dimensions, and F shell
fragment size, the fragment cubes’ space requirement is:
 D F 
For F < 5, the growth is sub-linear
OT (2  1)
 F 


 Shell fragments do not have to be disjoint
 Fragment groupings can be arbitrary to allow for
maximum online performance
  (e.g.,<city, state>)
Known common combinations
should be grouped together.
 Shell fragment sizes can be adjusted for optimal balance
between offline and online computation
38
 ID_Measure Table
 If measures other than count are present, store in
ID_measure table separate from the shell
fragments
tid count sum
1 5 70
2 3 10
3 8 20
4 5 40
5 2 30

39
 The Frag-Shells Algorithm

1. Partition set of dimension (A1,…,An) into a set of k fragments

(P1,…,Pk).

2. Scan base table once and do the following

3. insert <tid, measure> into ID_measure table.

4. for each attribute value ai of each dimension Ai

5. build inverted index entry <ai, tidlist>

6. For each fragment partition Pi

7. build local fragment cube Si by intersecting tid-lists in

bottom- up fashion.
40
 Frag-Shells (2)

Dimensions D Cuboid
EF Cuboid
A B C D E F … DE Cuboid
Cell Tuple-ID List
d1 e1 {1, 3, 8, 9}
d1 e2 {2, 4, 6, 7}
d2 e1 {5, 10}
… …

ABC DEF
Cube Cube

41
 Online Query Computation: Query

a1,a2 ,,an : M
A query has the general form


 Each ai has 3 possible values

1. Instantiated value

2. Aggregate * function

3. Inquire ? function
 For example,3 ? ? * 1: count returns a 2-
D data cube.


42
Online Query Computation: Method

 Given the fragment cubes, process a query as

follows
1. Divide the query into fragment, same as
the shell
2. Fetch the corresponding TID list for each
fragment from the fragment cube
3. Intersect the TID lists from each fragment
to construct instantiated base table
4. Compute the data cube using the base
table with any cubing algorithm
43
Online Query Computation: Sketch

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N …

Instantiated Online
Base Table Cube

44
 Experiment: Size vs.
Dimensionality (50 and 100
cardinality)

 (50-C): 106 tuples, 0 skew, 50 cardinality, fragment size 3.

 (100-C): 106 tuples, 2 skew, 100 cardinality, fragment size 2.
45
 Experiments on Real World Data

 UCI Forest CoverType data set


54 dimensions, 581K tuples

Shell fragments of size 2 took 33 seconds and
325MB to compute

3-D subquery with 1 instantiate D: 85ms~1.4 sec.
 Longitudinal Study of Vocational Rehab. Data

24 dimensions, 8818 tuples

Shell fragments of size 3 took 0.9 seconds and
60MB to compute

5-D query with 0 instantiated D: 227ms~2.6 sec.
46
 Data Cube Technology

 Data Cube Computation: Preliminary Concepts

 Data Cube Computation Methods
 Processing Advanced Queries by Exploring Data
Cube Technology
 Sampling Cube
 Ranking Cube
 Multidimensional Data Analysis in Cube Space
 Summary
47
 Processing Advanced Queries by
Exploring Data Cube Technology
 Sampling Cube

X. Li, J. Han, Z. Yin, J.-G. Lee, Y. Sun, “Sampling
Cube: A Framework for Statistical OLAP over
Sampling Data”, SIGMOD’08
 Ranking Cube

D. Xin, J. Han, H. Cheng, and X. Li. Answering top-
k queries with multi-dimensional selections: The
ranking cube approach. VLDB’06
 Other advanced cubes for processing data and
queries

Stream cube, spatial cube, multimedia cube, text
cube, RFID cube, etc. — to be studied in volume 2
48
 Statistical Surveys and OLAP
 Statistical survey: A popular tool to collect
information about a population based on a sample

Ex.: TV ratings, US Census, election polls
 A common tool in politics, health, market research,
science, and many more
 An efficient way of collecting information (Data
collection is expensive)
 Many statistical tools available, to determine
validity

Confidence intervals

Hypothesis tests
 OLAP (multidimensional analysis) on survey data

highly desirable but can it be done well?
49
 Surveys: Sample vs. Whole
Population
Data is only a sample of population

Age\Education High-school College Graduate

18

19

20

50
 Problems for Drilling in Multidim.
Space
Data is only a sample of population but samples
could be small when drilling to certain
multidimensional space
Age\Education High-school College Graduate

18

19

20

51
OLAP on Survey (i.e., Sampling)
Data
 Semantics of query is unchanged
 Input data has changed

Age/Education High-school College Graduate

18

19

20

52
Challenges for OLAP on Sampling
Data
 Computing confidence intervals in OLAP
context
 No data?
 Not exactly. No data in subspaces in cube
 Sparse data
 Causes include sampling bias and query
selection bias
 Curse of dimensionality
 Survey data can be high dimensional
 Over 600 dimensions in real world example
 Impossible to fully materialize

53
 Example 1: Confidence Interval
What is the average income of 19-year-old high-school
students?
Return not only query result but also confidence
Age/Education High-school College Graduate
interval
18

19

20

54
 Confidence Interval
 Confidence interval at :

x is a sample of data set; is the mean of sample
 tc is the critical t-value, calculated by a look-up
 is the estimated standard error of the mean
 Example: $50,000 ± $3,000 with 95% confidence

Treat points in cube cell as samples

Compute confidence interval as traditional sample
set
 Return answer in the form of confidence interval

Indicates quality of query answer

User selects desired confidence interval
55
Efficient Computing Confidence Interval
Measures

 Efficient computation in all cells in data cube


Both mean and confidence interval are algebraic

Why confidence interval measure is algebraic?

is algebraic
where both s and l (count) are algebraic
 Thus one can calculate cells efficiently at more general
cuboids without having to start at the base cuboid each
time

56
 Example 2: Query Expansion
What is the average income of 19-year-old college students?

Age/Education High-school College Graduate

18

19

20

57
 Boosting Confidence by Query
Expansion
 From the example: The queried cell “19-year-old
college students” contains only 2 samples
 Confidence interval is large (i.e., low confidence).
why?
 Small sample size
 High standard deviation with samples
 Small sample sizes can occur at relatively low
dimensional selections
 Collect more data?― expensive!
 Use data in other cells? Maybe, but have to be
careful

58
Intra-Cuboid Expansion: Choice 1
Expand query to include 18 and 20 year olds?

Age/Education High-school College Graduate

18

19

20

59
Intra-Cuboid Expansion: Choice 2
Expand query to include high-school and graduate students?

Age/Education High-school College Graduate

18

19

20

60
Query Expansion

61
 Intra-Cuboid Expansion
 Combine other cells’ data into own to “boost”
confidence
 If share semantic and cube similarity
 Use only if necessary
 Bigger sample size will decrease confidence
interval
 Cell segment similarity
 Some dimensions are clear: Age
 Some are fuzzy: Occupation
 May need domain knowledge
 Cell value similarity
 How to determine if two cells’ samples come
from the same population?
 Two-sample t-test (confidence-based)
62
 Inter-Cuboid Expansion
 If a query dimension is

Not correlated with cube value

But is causing small sample size by drilling
down too much
 Remove dimension (i.e., generalize to *) and
move to a more general cuboid
 Can use two-sample t-test to determine similarity
between two cells across cuboids
 Can also use a different method to be shown later

63
 Query Expansion Experiments
 Real world sample data: 600 dimensions and
750,000 tuples
 0.05% to simulate “sample” (allows error
checking)

64
 Data Cube Technology

 Data Cube Computation: Preliminary Concepts

 Data Cube Computation Methods
 Processing Advanced Queries by Exploring Data
Cube Technology
 Sampling Cube
 Ranking Cube
 Multidimensional Data Analysis in Cube Space
 Summary
65
Ranking Cubes – Efficient Computation
of Ranking queries
 Data cube helps not only OLAP but also ranked search
 (top-k) ranking query: only returns the best k results
according to a user-specified preference, consisting of
(1) a selection condition and (2) a ranking function
 Ex.: Search for apartments with expected price 1000
and expected square feet 800

Select top 1 from Apartment

where City = “LA” and Num_Bedroom = 2

order by [price – 1000]^2 + [sq feet - 800]^2 asc
 Efficiency question: Can we only search what we need?

Build a ranking cube on both selection dimensions
and ranking dimensions

66
Ranking Cube: Partition Data on Both
Selection and Ranking Dimensions
One single data
partition as the template
Partition for
Slice the data partition all data
by selection conditions

Sliced Partition Sliced Partition

for city=“LA” for BR=2
67
 Materialize Ranking-Cube
Step 1: Partition Data on
Ranking Dimensions
tid City BR Price Sq feet Block ID
t1 SEA 1 500 600 5
1 2 3 4
t2 CLE 2 700 800 5
t3 SEA 1 800 900 2 5 6 7 8
t4 CLE 3 1000 1000 6
t5 LA 1 1100 200 15 9 10 11
t6 LA 2 1200 500 11 12
t7 LA 2 1200 560 11 13 14 15
16
t8 CLE 3 1350 1120 4

Step 3: Compute Measures for each group

Step 2: Group data by
Selection Dimensions
City For the cell (LA)
SEA
Block-level: {11, 15}
LA Data-level: {11: t6, t7; 15: t5}
CLE City & BR
BR
1 2 3 4
68
 Simultaneously Push Selection and
Ranking
Select top 1 from Apartment
where city = “LA”
order by [price – 1000]^2 + [sq feet - 800]^2 asc
Bin boundary for price [500, 600, 800, 1100,1350] Given the bin boundaries,
Bin boundary for sq [200, 400, 600, 800, 1120] locate the block with top score
feet

800

11

15
1000

Measure for
Without ranking-cube: start With ranking-cube:
LA: {11, 15}
search from here start search from here
{11: t6,t7;
15:t5}
69
Processing Ranking Query: Execution
Trace
Select top 1 from Apartment
where city = “LA”
order by [price – 1000]^2 + [sq feet - 800]^2 asc

Bin boundary for price [500, 600, 800, 1100,1350]

f=[price-1000]^2 + [sq feet – 800]^2
Bin boundary for sq [200, 400, 600, 800, 1120]
feet

Execution Trace:
800
1. Retrieve High-level measure for LA {11, 15}
2. Estimate lower bound score for block 11, 15
11
f(block 11) = 40,000, f(block 15) = 160,000
15
1000
3. Retrieve block 11
4. Retrieve low-level measure for block 11
5. f(t6) = 130,000, f(t7) = 97,600
With ranking- Measure for
cube: start search LA: {11, 15}
Output t7, done!
from here {11: t6,t7;
15:t5} 70
 Ranking Cube: Methodology and
Extension

 Ranking cube methodology

 Push selection and ranking simultaneously
 It works for many sophisticated ranking functions
 How to support high-dimensional data?
 Materialize only those atomic cuboids that contain
single selection dimensions

Uses the idea similar to high-dimensional OLAP

Achieves low space overhead and high
performance in answering ranking queries with
a high number of selection dimensions

71
 Data Cube Technology

 Data Cube Computation: Preliminary Concepts

 Data Cube Computation Methods

 Processing Advanced Queries by Exploring

Data Cube Technology

 Multidimensional Data Analysis in Cube Space

 Summary

72
Multidimensional Data Analysis in
Cube Space

 Prediction Cubes: Data Mining in Multi-

Dimensional Cube Space

 Multi-Feature Cubes: Complex

Aggregation at Multiple Granularities

 Discovery-Driven Exploration of Data

Cubes
73
 Data Mining in Cube Space
 Data cube greatly increases the analysis bandwidth
 Four ways to interact OLAP-styled analysis and data
mining

Using cube space to define data space for mining

Using OLAP queries to generate features and targets
for mining, e.g., multi-feature cube

Using data-mining models as building blocks in a
multi-step mining process, e.g., prediction cube

Using data-cube computation techniques to speed up
repeated model construction

Cube-space data mining may require building a
model for each candidate data space

Sharing computation across model-construction for
different candidates may lead to efficient mining
74
 Prediction Cubes
 Prediction cube: A cube structure that stores
prediction models in multidimensional data space
and supports prediction in OLAP manner
 Prediction models are used as building blocks to
define the interestingness of subsets of data, i.e.,
to answer which subsets of data indicate better
prediction

75
 How to Determine the Prediction
Power of an Attribute?
 Ex. A customer table D:
 Two dimensions Z: Time (Month, Year ) and

Location (State, Country)

 Two features X: Gender and Salary

 One class-label attribute Y: Valued Customer

 Q: “Are there times and locations in which the value

of a customer depended greatly on the customers
gender (i.e., Gender: predictiveness attribute V)?”
 Idea:
 Compute the difference between the model built

on that using X to predict Y and that built on

using X – V to predict Y
 If the difference is large, V must play an

important role at predicting Y

76
Efficient Computation of Prediction
Cubes

 Naïve method: Fully materialize the

prediction cube, i.e., exhaustively build
models and evaluate them for each cell and
for each granularity
 Better approach: Explore score function
decomposition that reduces prediction cube
computation to data cube computation

77
Multidimensional Data Analysis in
Cube Space

 Prediction Cubes: Data Mining in Multi-

Dimensional Cube Space

 Multi-Feature Cubes: Complex

Aggregation at Multiple Granularities

 Discovery-Driven Exploration of Data

Cubes
78
 Complex Aggregation at Multiple
Granularities: Multi-Feature Cubes
 Multi-feature cubes (Ross, et al. 1998): Compute complex
queries involving multiple dependent aggregates at
multiple granularities
 Ex. Grouping by all subsets of {item, region, month}, find
the maximum price in 2010 for each group, and the total
sales among all maximum price tuples
select item, region, month, max(price), sum(R.sales)
from purchases
where year = 2010
cube by item, region, month: R
such that R.price = max(price)
 Continuing the last example, among the max price tuples,
find the min and max shelf live, and find the fraction of the
total sales due to tuple that have min shelf life within the
set of all max price tuples
79
Multidimensional Data Analysis in
Cube Space

 Prediction Cubes: Data Mining in Multi-

Dimensional Cube Space

 Multi-Feature Cubes: Complex

Aggregation at Multiple Granularities

 Discovery-Driven Exploration of Data

Cubes
80
Discovery-Driven Exploration of Data
Cubes

 Hypothesis-driven

exploration by user, huge search space
 Discovery-driven (Sarawagi, et al.’98)

Effective navigation of large OLAP data cubes

pre-compute measures indicating exceptions,
guide user in the data analysis, at all levels of
aggregation

Exception: significantly different from the value
anticipated, based on a statistical model

Visual cues such as background color are used to
reflect the degree of exception of each cell
81
 Kinds of Exceptions and their
Computation

 Parameters
 SelfExp: surprise of cell relative to other cells at
same level of aggregation
 InExp: surprise beneath the cell
 PathExp: surprise beneath cell for each drill-
down path
 Computation of exception indicator (modeling
fitting and computing SelfExp, InExp, and PathExp
values) can be overlapped with cube construction
 Exception themselves can be stored, indexed and
retrieved like precomputed aggregates
82
Examples: Discovery-Driven Data
Cubes

83
 Data Cube Technology

 Data Cube Computation: Preliminary Concepts

 Data Cube Computation Methods

 Processing Advanced Queries by Exploring

Data Cube Technology

 Multidimensional Data Analysis in Cube Space

 Summary

84
Data Cube Technology: Summary
 Data Cube Computation: Preliminary Concepts
 Data Cube Computation Methods
 MultiWay Array Aggregation
 BUC
 Star-Cubing
 High-Dimensional OLAP with Shell-Fragments
 Processing Advanced Queries by Exploring Data Cube
Technology
 Sampling Cubes
 Ranking Cubes
 Multidimensional Data Analysis in Cube Space

Discovery-Driven Exploration of Data Cubes
 Multi-feature Cubes
 Prediction Cubes
85
 Ref.(I) Data Cube Computation Methods
 S. Agarwal, R. Agrawal, P. M. Deshpande, A. Gupta, J. F. Naughton, R. Ramakrishnan, and S. Sarawagi. On the
computation of multidimensional aggregates. VLDB’96
 D. Agrawal, A. E. Abbadi, A. Singh, and T. Yurek. Efficient view maintenance in data warehouses. SIGMOD’97
 K. Beyer and R. Ramakrishnan. Bottom-Up Computation of Sparse and Iceberg CUBEs.. SIGMOD’99
 M. Fang, N. Shivakumar, H. Garcia-Molina, R. Motwani, and J. D. Ullman. Computing iceberg queries efficiently.
VLDB’98
 J. Gray, S. Chaudhuri, A. Bosworth, A. Layman, D. Reichart, M. Venkatrao, F. Pellow, and H. Pirahesh. Data cube:
A relational aggregation operator generalizing group-by, cross-tab and sub-totals. Data Mining and Knowledge
Discovery, 1:29–54, 1997.
 J. Han, J. Pei, G. Dong, K. Wang. Efficient Computation of Iceberg Cubes With Complex Measures. SIGMOD’01
 L. V. S. Lakshmanan, J. Pei, and J. Han, Quotient Cube: How to Summarize the Semantics of a Data Cube,
VLDB'02
 X. Li, J. Han, and H. Gonzalez, High-Dimensional OLAP: A Minimal Cubing Approach, VLDB'04
 Y. Zhao, P. M. Deshpande, and J. F. Naughton. An array-based algorithm for simultaneous multidimensional
aggregates. SIGMOD’97
 K. Ross and D. Srivastava. Fast computation of sparse datacubes. VLDB’97
 D. Xin, J. Han, X. Li, B. W. Wah, Star-Cubing: Computing Iceberg Cubes by Top-Down and Bottom-Up Integration,
VLDB'03
 D. Xin, J. Han, Z. Shao, H. Liu, C-Cubing: Efficient Computation of Closed Cubes by Aggregation-Based Checking,
ICDE'06

86
Ref. (II) Advanced Applications with Data Cubes
 D. Burdick, P. Deshpande, T. S. Jayram, R. Ramakrishnan, and S. Vaithyanathan. OLAP over
uncertain and imprecise data. VLDB’05
 X. Li, J. Han, Z. Yin, J.-G. Lee, Y. Sun, “Sampling Cube: A Framework for Statistical OLAP over
Sampling Data”, SIGMOD’08
 C. X. Lin, B. Ding, J. Han, F. Zhu, and B. Zhao. Text Cube: Computing IR measures for
multidimensional text database analysis. ICDM’08
 D. Papadias, P. Kalnis, J. Zhang, and Y. Tao. Efficient OLAP operations in spatial data
warehouses. SSTD’01
 N. Stefanovic, J. Han, and K. Koperski. Object-based selective materialization for efficient
implementation of spatial data cubes. IEEE Trans. Knowledge and Data Engineering, 12:938–
958, 2000.
 T. Wu, D. Xin, Q. Mei, and J. Han. Promotion analysis in multidimensional space. VLDB’09
 T. Wu, D. Xin, and J. Han. ARCube: Supporting ranking aggregate queries in partially
materialized data cubes. SIGMOD’08
 D. Xin, J. Han, H. Cheng, and X. Li. Answering top-k queries with multi-dimensional selections:
The ranking cube approach. VLDB’06
 J. S. Vitter, M. Wang, and B. R. Iyer. Data cube approximation and histograms via wavelets.
CIKM’98
 D. Zhang, C. Zhai, and J. Han. Topic cube: Topic modeling for OLAP on multi-dimensional text
databases. SDM’09

87
 Ref. (III) Knowledge Discovery with Data Cubes
 R. Agrawal, A. Gupta, and S. Sarawagi. Modeling multidimensional databases. ICDE’97
 B.-C. Chen, L. Chen, Y. Lin, and R. Ramakrishnan. Prediction cubes. VLDB’05
 B.-C. Chen, R. Ramakrishnan, J.W. Shavlik, and P. Tamma. Bellwether analysis: Predicting global
aggregates from local regions. VLDB’06
 Y. Chen, G. Dong, J. Han, B. W. Wah, and J. Wang, Multi-Dimensional Regression Analysis of
Time-Series Data Streams, VLDB'02
 G. Dong, J. Han, J. Lam, J. Pei, K. Wang. Mining Multi-dimensional Constrained Gradients in Data
Cubes. VLDB’ 01
 R. Fagin, R. V. Guha, R. Kumar, J. Novak, D. Sivakumar, and A. Tomkins. Multi-structural
databases. PODS’05
 J. Han. Towards on-line analytical mining in large databases. SIGMOD Record, 27:97–107, 1998
 T. Imielinski, L. Khachiyan, and A. Abdulghani. Cubegrades: Generalizing association rules. Data
Mining & Knowledge Discovery, 6:219–258, 2002.
 R. Ramakrishnan and B.-C. Chen. Exploratory mining in cube space. Data Mining and Knowledge
Discovery, 15:29–54, 2007.
 K. A. Ross, D. Srivastava, and D. Chatziantoniou. Complex aggregation at multiple granularities.
EDBT'98
 S. Sarawagi, R. Agrawal, and N. Megiddo. Discovery-driven exploration of OLAP data cubes.
EDBT'98
 G. Sathe and S. Sarawagi. Intelligent Rollups in Multidimensional OLAP Data. VLDB'01

88
Surplus Slides

89
 Data Cube Technology
 Efficient Methods for Data Cube Computation

Preliminary Concepts and General Strategies for Cube
Computation
 Multiway Array Aggregation for Full Cube Computation
 BUC: Computing Iceberg Cubes from the Apex Cuboid Downward
 H-Cubing: Exploring an H-Tree Structure
 Star-cubing: Computing Iceberg Cubes Using a Dynamic Star-tree
Structure
 Precomputing Shell Fragments for Fast High-Dimensional OLAP
 Data Cubes for Advanced Applications
 Sampling Cubes: OLAP on Sampling Data
 Ranking Cubes: Efficient Computation of Ranking Queries
 Knowledge Discovery with Data Cubes
 Discovery-Driven Exploration of Data Cubes
 Complex Aggregation at Multiple Granularity: Multi-feature Cubes
 Prediction Cubes: Data Mining in Multi-Dimensional Cube Space
 Summary
90
H-Cubing: Using H-Tree Structure
a ll

 Bottom-up computation A B C D

 Exploring an H-tree
AB AC AD BC BD CD
structure
 If the current ABC ABD ACD BCD

computation of an H- ABCD

tree cannot pass

min_sup, do not proceed
further (pruning)
 No simultaneous
aggregation

91
 H-tree: A Prefix Hyper-tree
Quant-
Attr. Val. Side-link
Info root
Sum:2285
Edu
…
Header Hhd … edu hhd bus
Bus …
table … …
Jan …
Feb … Jan Mar Jan Feb
… …
Tor …
Van …
Mon …
Tor Van Tor Mon
Cust_gr
Month City … Prod… Cost Price
p
Jan Tor Edu Printer 500 485 Quant- Q.I. Q.I. Q.I.
Jan Tor Hhd TV 800 1200 Info

Jan Tor Edu

Camer
1160 1280
Sum:
a 1765
Feb Mon Bus Laptop 1500 2500 Cnt: 2
Mar Van Edu HD 540 520
bins
… … … … … … 92
 Computing Cells Involving “City”

Attr. Side-
Val.
Q.I.
link From (*, *, Tor) to (*, Jan, Tor)
Header Edu …
root
Hhd …
Table Bus …
HTor …
Jan
…
… Edu. Hhd. Bus.
Feb …
… …

Attr.
Quant-Info Side-link
Jan. Mar. Jan. Feb.
Val.
Edu Sum:2285 …
Hhd …
Bus … Tor. Van. Tor. Mon.
… …
Jan …
Feb …
Quant- Q.I. Q.I. Q.I.
… …
Tor … Info
Van … Sum:
Mon … 1765
… …
Cnt: 2
93
 Computing Cells Involving Month But No
City

1. Roll up quant-info root

2. Compute cells
Edu. Hhd. Bus.
involving month but
no city
Attr.
Quant-Info Side-link
Val. Jan. Mar. Jan. Feb.
Edu. Sum:2285 …
Hhd. …
Bus. … Q.I. Q.I. Q.I. Q.I.
… …
Jan. …
Feb. …
Mar. …
… … Tor.
Tor. … Van. Tor. Mont.
Van. … Top-k OK mark: if Q.I. in a child
Mont. … passes top-k avg threshold, so does
… … its parents. No binning is needed!
94
 Computing Cells Involving Only
Cust_grp

root

Check header table edu hhd bus

directly
Attr.
Quant-Info Side-link Jan Mar Jan Feb
Val.
Sum:2285
Edu
… Q.I. Q.I. Q.I. Q.I.
Hhd …
Bus …
… …
Jan …
Feb …
Mar … Tor Van
… … Tor Mon
Tor …
Van …
Mon …
… …
95