1.

Emergence of sociology

1.1. what is sociology?

 As may be the case with other sciences, sociology
is often misconceived among the populace.
 Though many may rightly and grossly surmise that
sociology is about people, some think that it is all
about “helping the unfortunate and doing welfare
work, while others think that sociology is the
same as socialism and is a means of bringing
revolution to our schools and colleges”.

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 Cont…
 The first social scientist to use the term sociology
was a Frenchman by the name of Auguste Comte.
 As coined by Comte, the term sociology is a
combination of two words.
 The first part of the term is a Latin socius- that may
variously mean society, association, togetherness or
companionship.
 The other word logos is of Greek origin. It is
literally means to speak about or word.
However, the term is generally understood
as study or science (Indrani,1998).

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 Cont…
 Thus, the etymological, literal definition of sociology
is that it is the word or speaking about society.
 A simple definition here is that it is the study of
society and culture.

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 Cont…
 The discipline was more firmly established by such
theorists as EmileDurkheim, Karl Marx and Max
Weber (Nobbs, Hine and Flemming, 1978).
 the concepts “society” and “culture” are central in
sociology.
 Society generally refers to the social world with all its
structures, institutions, organizations, etc around us,
and specifically to a group of people who live within
some type of bounded territory and who share a
common way of life. this common way of life
shared by a group of people is termed as culture.

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 Cont…
 in addition to this etymological definition of the term,
we need to have other substantive definitions:

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 Cont…
 Thus, sociology may be generally defined as a social
science that studies such kinds of phenomena as:
 The structure & function of society as a system;
 The nature, complexity and contents of human

social behavior;
 The fundamentals of human social life;
 Interaction of human beings with their external

environment;
 The indispensability of social interactions for human

development;
 How the social world affects us, etc.

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 Cont …
 A more formal definition of sociology may be that:
it is asocial science which studies the processes and
patterns of human individual and group interaction,
the forms of organization of social groups, the
relationship among them, and group influences on
individual behavior, and vice versa, and the
interaction between one social group and the other
(Team of Experts, 2000).

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 Cont …
1.2. Scope and Concerns of Sociology
 The scope of sociology is extremely wide ranging,

from the analysis of passing encounter between

individuals on the street up to the investigation of
global social processes.
 The discipline covers an extremely broad range that

includes every aspect of human social conditions;

all types of human relationships and forms of social
behavior (Indrani, 1998).

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 Cont …
 Sociologists are primarily interested in human
beings as they appear in social interaction and the
effects of this interaction on human behavior.
 Such interaction can range from the first physical
contacts of the new born baby with its mother to a
philosophical discussion at an international
conference, from a casual passing on the street to
the most intimate of human relationships (World Book
Encyclopedia 1994).
 Sociologists are interested to know what processes
lead to these interactions, what exactly occurs when
they take place, and what their short run and long run
consequences are.
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 Cont …
 The major systems or units of interaction that
interest sociologists are social groups such as the
family or peer groups;
 social relationships, such as social roles and dyadic
relationships,
 Sociologists are keen to understand, explain, and
analyze the effect of social world, social
environment and social interaction on our behavior,
worldviews, lifestyle, personality, attitudes,
decisions, etc., as creative, rational, intelligent
members of society; and how we as such create the
social reality.

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 Cont…
1.3. The importance of Learning Sociology
 Generally, learning sociology provides us with what

sociologists call the sociological imagination.

 Sociological imagination is a particular way of

looking at the world around us through sociological

lenses.
 It is a way of looking at our experiences in light of

what is going on in the social world around us.

 This helps us to appreciate the social and non-

biological forces that affect, influence and shape our

lives as individuals, groups, and communities
(Giddens,1982).
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 Cont…
 Sociological imagination helps us look beyond
individual psychology to the many and varied facets
of social and cultural forces, and "the recurring
patterns in peoples' attitudes and actions, and how
these patterns vary across time, cultures and social
groups." (Henslin and Nelson, 1995)
 Learning sociology helps us understand how social
forces influence our goals, attitudes, behavior, and
personality. We become more sensitive towards the
social issues.

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 Cont…
 learning sociology helps to cast aside our own
biased assumptions, stereotypes and ethno-centric
thinking and practices to become more critical,
broad- minded and respectful in our interpersonal
and inter- group relationships. By learning sociology,
we can be more humane and people – centered; we
give high value to human dignity.
 In general, sociology increases our self-knowledge,
provide us with self- enlightenment, increase our
knowledge about the conditions of our own lives,
and about the way our society and social system
function.

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 Cont…
 In addition to the aforementioned theoretical
benefits, sociology has certain practical benefits.
There is what we call applied sociology, the
application of sociological knowledge, principles,
methods, concepts and theories to provide the
solutions to the contemporary social pathologies.
Sociology plays practical roles to tackle social
pathologies.
 Sociological knowledge is highly applicable in
dealing with today's most crucial social problems,
and in facilitating developmental activities in
socioeconomic sectors.

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 Cont…
1.4. Levels of Sociological Analysis
There are generally two levels of analysis in sociology,
which may also be regarded as branches of sociology:
 Micro-sociology is interested in small- scale level of

the structure and functioning of human social groups.

This level of analysis focuses on social interaction. It
analyzes interpersonal relationships, and on what
people do and how they behave when they interact.
This level of analysis is usually employed by symbolic
interaction perspective.

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 Cont…
 Macro-sociology focuses on the broad features of
society.
 The goal of macro-sociology is to examine the large-
scale social phenomena that determine how social
groups are organized and positioned within the
social structure.
 Some writers also add a third level of analysis called
meso-level analysis, which analyzes human social
phenomena in between the micro- and macro-levels.
Based on their particular academic interest
sociologists may prefer one form of analysis to the
other; but all levels of analysis are useful and
necessary for a fuller understanding of social life in
society.

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2. The major theoretical perspectives in
sociology
 Sociology as science employs perspectives or
theories to understand, explain, analyze and
interpret social phenomena.
 To interpret social facts, they must be
subjected to a theoretical framework.
 theory is defined as a set of interconnected
hypotheses that offer general explanations
for natural or social phenomena.
 “perspectives” and “schools of thought” are
often used interchangeably with the term
“theory”.

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 Cont…
 There are three major theoretical perspectives in
sociology that have provided an overall framework
for sociological studies.
 structural- functionalism, social conflict theory and

symbolic interactionist.
2.1. The Structural-Functionalist Theory
 This is one of the dominant theories both in

anthropology and sociology. It is sometimes called

functionalism.

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 Cont…
 The theory tries to explain how the relationships
among the parts of society are created and how these
parts are functional (meaning having beneficial
consequences to the individual and the society) and
dysfunctional (meaning having negative
consequences).
 It focuses on consensus, social order, structure and
function in society.
 This theory sees society as a complex system
whose parts work together to promote solidarity
and stability.
 it states that our social lives are guided by social
structure, which are relatively stable patterns of
social behavior (Macionis,1997).

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 Cont…
 The functional aspect in the structural-functionalist theory
stresses the role played by each component part in the
social system, whereas the structural perspective suggests
an image of society wherein individuals are constrained by
the social forces, social backgrounds and by group
memberships.
 The major terms and concepts developed by anthropologists
and sociologists in this theory include (or the theory focuses
on): order, structure, function (manifest or direct functions
and latent or hidden, indirect functions), and equilibrium.
 The theory was criticized for its emphasis on stability and
order while neglecting conflict and changes which so vital in
any society.

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 Cont …
2.2. The Social Conflict Theory
 This theory is also called Marxism; to indicate that

the main impetus to the theory derives from the

writings of Karl Marx.
 This theory sees society in a framework of class

conflicts and focuses on the struggle for scarce

resources by different groups in a given society.
 The theory holds that the most important aspect of

social order is the domination of some group by

others, that actual or potential conflicts are always
present in society.
 The theory is useful in explaining how the dominant

groups use their power to exploit the less powerful

groups in society.
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 Cont…
 Key concepts developed in this perspective include:
conflict, complementation, struggle, power,
inequality, and exploitation.
 This theory was criticized, for its overemphasis on
inequality and division, for neglecting the fact of how
shared values and interdependence generate unity
among members of society; its explicit political
goals, it sees society in very broad terms, neglecting
micro-level social realities (Macionis,1997).

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 Cont…
2.3. Symbolic Interactionism
 This theory was advanced by such American

sociologists as Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929)

William I Thomas (1863-1947) and George Herbert
Mead (1863-1931) in early 20th century.
 This perspective views symbols as the basis of

social life.
 Symbols are things to which we attach meanings.
 The theory stresses the analysis of how our

behaviors depend on how we define others and

ourselves.

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 Cont…
No. theory What does it state? Key concepts Its weaknesses

1. Structural Sees society as a complex Consensus, social Emphasis on stability and order
Functionalis system whose parts work order, structure and while neglecting conflict and
m together to promote solidarity function in society. changes which so vital in any
and stability society

2. Social Sees society in a framework of Class conflict; For its overemphasis on inequality
conflict class conflicts and focuses on alienation; and division, for neglecting the fact
theory the struggle for scarce competition; of how shared values and
resources by different groups domination interdependence generate unity
in a given society among members of society; it is
also criticized for its explicit
political goals.

3. Symbolic Stresses the analysis of how Symbols; Too much emphasis on micro- level
interaction our behaviors depend on how processes; analysis; neglect of larger social
we define others and ourselves. interaction; processes
It concentrates on process, meaning
rather than structure, and keeps
the individual actor at the
center.

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 Cont…
3. Methods of sociological research
The Scientific Method Inductive vs. Deductive
Approaches
 Sociology is a science.
 As such, it is concerned with systematically

observing and classifying facts, and establishing

verifiable laws.
 like any other science employs scientific method,

which is the source for scientific knowledge.

 The scientific method is defined as a method of

observing the world critically, empirically and

rationally to collect and analyze data systematically
to arrive at a scientific knowledge.
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 Cont…
 Sociology as a science employs the two very
important approaches in research design and in the
overall research framework inductive methods
and deductive method.
 The scientific method as a precise way of designing

and conducting research consists of the following

basic steps:
1. establishing a hypothesis
a general statement based on observed facts
2. determining ways to test the hypothesis,
incorporating them in research design

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 Cont…
3. testing the hypothesis through research and further
observation…” (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis,1992)
 Sociology as a science employs the two very

important approaches in research design and in the

overall research framework: inductive and
deductive method.
 Inductive method is a method by which the scientist

first makes observation and collects data, on the

basis of which he or she formulates hypothesis and
theories (Scupin and DeCorse,1995).
 The researcher tries to build theories from particular

observations and instances. This approach moves

from the particular to the general.

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 Cont…
 Deductive method is the method by researcher
attempts to derive specific assertions and claims
from a general theoretical principle. This
approach moves from the general to the
particular.
 As a science, the primary aim of sociology is

doing research; to produce, accumulate,

and disseminate scientific knowledge on
society and social phenomena.
1.5.1. Steps in Sociological Research
 Generally, there are about seven steps in

doing a sociological research.

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 Cont…
 These steps are not, however, typical to sociology
alone. It should also be noted that these steps are
not fixed ones. Some steps may not necessarily be
followed in some research projects. The steps may
not necessarily be put in sequential order.
1. Identification of Research Problems
 The first step in doing sociological research is to

come up with a research problem.

 It is basically involves choosing a research topic.
 The ways and manners in which researchers

identify a research problem and choose a topic vary

according to various factors.

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 Cont..
 The research interests of sociologists are, often,
triggered by their own life experiences and
observations (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992).
 The initial ideas for research thus may occur at any
time and place for a researcher. Walking down a
street, reading through newspapers, watching
television, etc

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 Cont…
Once a research topic comes to our mind, we should
ask the following questions:
 Is it researchable?
 Is it sociologically/ socially significant?
 What is new about it?
 What gap will it fill?
 Is it manageable in terms of time, money, expertise

and other resources? In other words do you have

the needed resources to do the research?
If you answer these and other related questions
adequately, then you are on the right track to
conduct the research.

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 Cont…
2. Literature Review
This step involves familiarizing or orienting yourself with
the concepts, theories and the works already done
pertaining to the topic identified.
 Relevant available literature on the topic chosen should

be reviewed; we should also check out what works have

already been done by others, what gaps are remaining,
what questions remain unanswered, etc.
 The researcher will need to review past works on the

question he or she is raising (Dooley, 1995)

 source for literature review

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 Cont…
3. Hypothesis Formulation
 Hypothesis is a statement that can be proved to be

correct or incorrect. Hypothesis formulation involves

identifying basic research objectives and
determining research questions.
 This should be tested empirically.
 We put some guiding assumptions to the research

in this step.
 The type of research may determine whether

hypothesizing is needed or not.

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 Cont…
 4. Selections and Designing of Methods of Data
Collection
 Here the researcher determines data collection
methods and prepares data collection instruments.
 There are generally two categories of methods:
Quantitative methods and qualitative methods.
 Quantitative methods focus on measuring quantity
of information. prevalence, scope, percentage, frequency, magnitude, etc
 qualitative methods focus on depth and quality of
information. belief, attitudinal and knowledge dimensions etc

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 Cont…
5. Conducting Data Gathering Activity
 the step in which the researcher engages in

collecting the needed data by using the various

methods and instruments.
 The researcher goes to the field and collects the

data. trains data collectors supervises the overall

data collection process, and so on.
 Data collected thus may be of two types: primary
and secondary data.
 Primary data are firsthand and original information;

the researcher firsthand collects them.

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 Cont…
 secondary data are those which are already
collected by some one else found in various sources
as documents or archives. official statistical documents, mass media
sources (such as electronic media radio, television, films, etc; and print media such
as newspapers, magazines, journals, posters, brochures, leaflets, sign broads, etc.)
 methods of data collection in sociology include:
 Surveys one of the dominant quantitative
techniques is the survey method, which involves
sampling, impersonal data collections, and
sophisticated statistical analysis.
 In survey research, people who provide information
are termed as respondents

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 Cont…
 respondents are often selected on random
sample basis, wherein all members of a population
have equal chances of being included in the study
population.
 There are three types of survey research:

cross sectional survey

aims to find out what opinions research participants
across sections of society have about a certain
phenomena at a given point of time his survey
represents fixed reflections of one moment in time.

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 Cont…
 Longitudinal survey is conducted on the
same
type of people over long period of time as
long as sometimes 20 to 30 years.
 panel surveys, which are alternative

versions of longitudinal surveys. It usually

lasts shorter period of time and asks
questions of panel members on a frequent
basis.

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 Cont…
 Experimentation: This quantitative method is
sometimes used in sociology.
 Key Informant Interview: This is a qualitative
method in which a knowledgeable person in study
site or community is contacted and interviewed by
the researcher or data collector.
 Focus Group Discussion: This is a form of
qualitative data collection method in which intends
to make use of the explicit interaction dynamic
among group members which may yield important
information on certain topic.

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 Cont…
 Case Study: This method involves investigating a certain issue
as a case taking longer time and investigating the phenomenon
in depth.
 Observation: This qualitative method involves collecting data on

social phenomena by carefully observing the social processes,

events, activities, behaviors, actions, etc., they take place.
6. Data Organization, Analysis, Interpretation, and
Report Writing
 The researcher here carefully stores the data, manages them,

organizes and systematically arranges.

 Various ways of analyzing data are used both in qualitative and

quantitative methods

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 Cont…
7. Dissemination of Research Findings
 the final step in which the researcher shares the

findings with all concerned bodies. Dissemination of

the research findings is possible via scientific
journals, seminars, symposiums, conferences and
other forums.

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 Cont…
5. Definition of rural sociology
 Rural sociology is a branch of sociology.

 It is made up of two terms rural and sociology that

is science of rural society.

 It is the study of the sociology of life in the rural

environment, which systematically studies the rural

communities to discover their conditions and
tendencies and formulate the principles of progress.
 It is limited to the study of various aspects of rural

society.

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 Cont…
5.1. Origin and development of rural Sociology
 Rural sociology as an organized discipline is of

recent origin.
 It was originated in USA and gradually its

importance is being realized elsewhere.

 It was originated from a report of the Country Life

Commission appointed by the American president

Theodore Roosevelt, in 1907.
 A charter for rural sociology.

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 Cont…
5.2. Importance of rural sociology (Why Rural sociology? )
 Ethiopian population are predominantly consists of

farmers.
 World population is largely rural.
 Similarly urban population consists of people from

rural background.
 To study the farmer and its group relationships in

the face of rapid change.

 To understand how rural society is changing.

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 Cont…
 To study the values, beliefs and attitudes of people,
regarding adoption rate or acceptance of innovation.
 To understand communication and adoption of
technology and information source.
 To understand Stratification and mobility.
 To understand indigenous knowledge system.
 To understand government and farmers’
relationships

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 Cont…
5.3. Scope of rural sociology
1. Rural community: the characteristics, special features and ecology of
the village community.

2. Rural social structure.

3. Rural institutions: social, economic, political, educational and religious
institutions are the subject of the study of rural sociology.

4. Culture: various aspects of the cultural life of the rural people.

5. Social change: the impact of urbanization, industrialization and other aspects
of modernization on rural life.

6. Agricultural transformation: the process of diffusion and adoption

agricultural technology among the farming community, modernization of rural life as a result of
improvement in the farming technology, the gains of the various classes of rural community from
the growth in the agricultural economy, etc.

7. Rural development programs: evaluates the impact of various rural

development programs; and the impact of various social legislation measures on the various
sections of the village people.

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 Cont…
8. Rural demography: the population growth, rural to urban and rural to rural
migration of the people.

9. Rural social problems: socio-economic inequality, unemployment,

poverty, malnutrition, illiteracy, use of drugs and alcohol and incidence of crimes in rural areas.

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 6. Society and Culture
6.1 The concept of Society
 It is an autonomous grouping of people who inhabit a

common territory, have a common culture (shared set of

values, beliefs, customs and so forth) and are linked to
one another through routinized social interactions and
interdependent statuses and roles.“ (Calhoun et al,1994)
 Society also may mean a certain population group, a

community.
 The common tendency in sociology has been to

conceptualize society as a system, focusing on the

bounded and integrated nature of society.

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 Cont…
6.2 Basic Features of a Society
1. Relatively large grouping of people in terms of size.
 society may be regarded as the largest and the most

complex social group that sociologists study.

2. Its members share common and distinct culture. This
sets it apart from the other population groups.
3. It has a definite, limited space or territory.
 The populations that make up a given society are thus

locatable in a definite geographical area.

 The people consider that area as their own.

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 Cont…
4.The people who make up a society have the feeling
of identity and belongingness. There is also the
feeling of oneness.
5.Members of a society are considered to have a
common origin and common historical
experience. They feel that they have also common
destiny.
6.Members of a society may also speak a common
mother tongue or a major language that may
serve as a national heritage.
7. A society is autonomous and independent in the
sense that it has all the necessary social institutions and
organizational arrangements to sustain the system.
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 Cont…
6.3. The Concept of Culture
 common people often misuse the concept of culture.
 It refers to the whole ways of life of the members of

a society. It includes what they dress, their marriage

customs and family life, art, and patterns of work,
religious ceremonies, leisure pursuits, and so forth.
It also includes the material goods they produce:
bows and arrows, plows, factories and machines,
computers, books, buildings, airplanes, etc
(Calhoun, et al, 1994; Hensiln and Nelson, 1995).

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 Cont…
6.4. Basic Characteristics of Culture
1. Culture is organic and supra-organic.
2. Culture is overt and covert.
3. Culture is explicit and implicit.
4. Culture is shared and learned.

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 Cont…
 6.5. Role of culture in Extension
1. Community development aims at bringing about
the changes in the culture of rural people towards
desired goals.
2. Scientific understanding of the culture is therefore
basic.
3. It is possible to record greater success when the
improved practices introduced are in familiar terms.
4. Change is more likely to occur in those aspects of
culture where there is lack of adjustment or
stress,

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 Cont…
 Change in technology usually more readily
accounted than change in other aspects of culture.
6.6. Different cultural concepts
I. Ethnocentrism
 refers to the preferential feeling we have for the

way we do things in our culture.

 We presume that ours is the best of all cultures and

the way we do things is the right way to do them.

This is common characteristic we find among the
people of all cultures.

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 Cont…
II. Cultural Relativism
 Every society has its own culture, which is more or

less unique.
 Every culture contains its own unique pattern of

behavior which may seem alien to people from other

cultural backgrounds.
 We cannot understand the practices and beliefs

separately from the wider culture of which they are

part.
 A culture has to be studied in terms of its own

meanings and values.

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 Cont…
 Respect for cultural differences involves:
• Appreciating cultural diversity.
• Accepting and respecting other cultures.
• Trying to understand every culture and its elements
in terms of its own context and logic.
 Cultural relativism may be regarded as the opposite

of ethnocentrism.

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 Cont…
7. Social institutions
 It is an interrelated system of social roles and social

norms, organized around the satisfaction of an

important social need or social function (Team of
Experts, 2000).
 A social institution is an established pattern of

behavior that is organized to perpetuate the welfare

of society and to preserve its form.

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 Cont…
 Its important functions
a. Perpetuation of the welfare of society.
b. Preservation and maintenance of the form of
society.
c. Meeting the major needs of the members of
society.
A society is functionally integrated and held
together by social institutions.

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 Cont…
 Social institutions are universal.
 They vary from time to time and across cultures, in
terms of complexity, specialization, scope, formality
and organization. But their basic nature and purpose
are similar everywhere.
 These features are particularly true regarding the five
major social institutions discussed below.
 Social institutions are resistant to change; they tend
to persist. However, once a change occurs in
particular social institution, it tends to affect the other
institutions as well.

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 Cont…
I. Family and its functions
 Family is a biological as well as a social group.
 Family is a relatively permanent group of persons

linked together in social roles by ties of blood,

marriage, or adoption that live together and
cooperate economically and in the rearing of
children.
 Family is sometimes called the most basic of all

social institutions.
 The family is considered so important to individuals

and society because it responds to some of the

most fundamental human needs, both individual and
collective.
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 Cont…
 One function of the family is to meet the individual
members need for love and emotional security.
Changes in family Authority
 Patriarchal to Equalitarian
 The rural family used to be of the patriarchal type.

That is, the father had virtually all the authority.

 Familism to individualism

II. Economic institutions and their function

 Are social structures concerned with the production

and distribution of goods and services.

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 Cont..
III. Religious institutions and their function
 Sociologists define religion as a system of beliefs and

practices related to sacred things that unites believers

in to a moral community.
 Religion fulfills the following functions for most people

 Relief of fear and anxiety

 Self-justification and moral identity

 Explaining the unknown

 Agency of social control

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 Cont…
 IV. Political institutions
 Politics is the process by which people gain muse

and loss power.

 Accordingly, there is one element of politics in

almost all social relationships. We are usually

referring to power in the sense of the ability to exert
control over other people behavior or experience,
even when they resist.
 There are two kinds of power.
 Legitimate
 Coercive

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Functions of political Institutions
 Establishing rules and regulations that

govern individual and social behavior

 Institutionalizing norms and values of

societies
 Ensuring peace and security of societies

and etc…

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 Cont…
V. Educational institutions and their Functions
 The educational institution is the social structure

concerned with the formal transmission of

knowledge.
 It is one of our most enduring and familiar

institutions.
 Nearly 3 of every 10 people in the United States are

involved in education on a daily basis as students or

staff.
 As former students, parents, or taxpayers, all of us

are involved in education in one way or another.

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Function of educational institutions
 Cultural reproduction
 Social control
 Assimilation
 Training and development
 Selection and allocation
 Promotion of change

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 Cont…
8. Socialization
 In any society there are socially recognized ways in

which the norms and values of the society are

inculcated in the human infant who comes into this
world as a biological organism with animalistic needs
or impulses.
 Socialization is a process of making somebody social

and fully human. more appropriately,

 It is a process whereby individual persons learn and

are trained in the basic norms, values, beliefs, skills,

attitudes, way of doing and acting as appropriate to a
specific social group or society.

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 Cont…
 It is an on-going, never ending process- from cradle
to the grave.
 From the point of view of individual persons,
especially a newly born baby, socialization is a
process whereby a biological being or organism is
changed into a social being.
 Socialization may be formal or informal. It becomes
formal when it is conducted by formally organized
social groups and institutions, like schools, religious
centers, mass media universities, work places,
military training centers, internships, etc.

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 Cont…
 It is informal when it is carried out through the
informal social interactions and relationships at
micro-levels, at interpersonal and small social group
levels.
 The most important socialization for us is that we
get through informal agents like family, parents,
neighborhood and peer group influences. It has a
very powerful influence, whether negative or
positive, in our lives.
 Whether it is formal or informal, is vitally important to
both individuals and society.

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 4.1. Types of socialization
 Sociologists generally distinguish three types of
socialization: primary socialization, anticipatory
socialization, and re socialization.
a) Primary socialization
 Early childhood socialization
 It is primary in two senses.

I. It occurs first, and it is most critical for later development.

II. During this period, children develop personality and self-
concept, acquire motor abilities, reasoning, and language
skills, and are exposed to a social world consisting of
roles, values, and norms.

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 Cont…
b) Secondary or Adult Socialization
 While socialization is an overbidding issue for

children and adolescents, it is a never-ending

process that continues throughout life.
 Secondary or adult socialization is necessitated

when individual take up new roles, reorienting

themselves according to their changes social
statuses and roles, as in starting marital life.
 The socialization process at this stage may

sometimes be intense.

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c) Anticipatory socialization:
 As we progress from infancy to old age, we must
continually shed old roles and adopt new ones.
 Many of these role changes are relatively easy

because of anticipatory socialization role learning

that prepares us for roles we are likely to assume in
the future.
d) Re-socialization
 The most extreme example of role change comes

about when we abandon our self-concept and way

of life for a radically different one.

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THE END

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