INTRODUCTION

TO AD HOC
NETWORKS
Lesson 1
 P R E S E N TAT I O N
WHAT IS AN AD HOC Click to add photo
NETWORK?
An ad hoc network is one that is created

T I T L E
between wireless devices without the use of
other network devices. In an ad hoc
2
network, one device connects directly to
another. This connection allows the two or

M a y
2 1 ,
more devices to communicate with each

2 0 X X
other, share resources such as files, printers,
and in some situations allow the sharing of
an internet connection.
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 WHAT IS AN AD HOC
An ad
NETWORK?
hoc network is created
whenever one device directly connects
to another. If a cell phone allows a tablet
to connect to its hot spot, or if a smart
speaker is connected via Bluetooth to a
media player, they are on an ad hoc
network together. The network
possibilities for an ad hoc network are
endless as different devices with
different resources can add functionality
to the ad hoc network.
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 C HARAC TERISTICS AN
AD HOC NETWORK
The main characteristics of an ad hoc network are:

 Dynamic Topologies: Devices in the ad hoc network are

capable of changing the topology anytime. By default, they
use multi-hop topology.
 Less Reliability: Wireless networks are less reliable than
wired networks. They are also less stable and less efficient.
 Autonomous Behaviour: In ad hoc networks, we do not
have specific nodes that work as hosts or routers. Any node
can act like a host or router, depending on the situation.
 Less Security: Wireless networks are less secure because
there is no firewall present.
 Less Human Intervention: Ad hoc networks configure
themselves, so there is a significantly less human
intervention to configure the network.

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 TYPES OF AD HOC
The major categories intoNETWORK
which the ad hoc networks are categorized are:

 MANETs: It stands for Mobile Ad Hoc Network. It is a network of mobile

phones without requiring any infrastructure. This network is capable of
self-organizing and self-configuring.
 VANETs: It stands for Vehicular Ad Hoc Network. Communication
between vehicles and roadside devices occurs through this network.
 SPANs: Smartphone Ad Hoc Network is the network established
between smartphones in a particular range. It is a type of peer-to-peer
network.
 Wireless Mesh Network: The devices connect in a mesh topology in
this category.
 Wireless Sensor Networks: We have sensory devices in an ad hoc
network in this network category.

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APPL IC ATIONS OF AD
HOC NETWORK
The ad hoc networks can be arranged by
their application as :

Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) which is a

self-organizing infrastructure less system of
cell phones communicated through remote
connection.
Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) utilizes
vehicles as nodes in a network to make a
mobile network.
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) comprises of
independent sensors to control the
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ecological activities.
U S AGES OF AD HOC
NETWORK
 Military – An ad hoc networking will give access
to the army to maintain an network among all the
soldiers, vehicles and headquarters.
 Personal area network (PAN) – It is a short
range, local network where each nodes are usually
related with a given range.
 Crisis Condition – Because it is fairly easy to
create it can be used in time of crisis to send
emergency signals.
 Medical Application – It can use to monitor
patient.
 Environmental Application – It can be used to
check weather condition, forest fire, tsunami etc.
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 ADVANTAGES OF AD
HOC NETWORK
The advantages of the ad hoc network are:

 Firstly the network requires no hardware to establish the

connection, so the cost of making a connection becomes
low.

 When we do not have an option of connecting devices

through cable, ad hoc networks are an option to establish
the connection.

 Very less human intervention is required because ad hoc

networks are self-configurable.

 When we need less number of devices to connect, an ad

hoc network is preferable over traditional methods of
connection(connection requiring the use of infrastructure).

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 DIS ADVANTAGES OF AD
HOC NETWORK
Let us have a look at the disadvantages of ad hoc networks:

X There can be some difficulty when the number of devices in

the
connection increases. There can be noise, interference, etc.

X There are fewer security options in this network. We do not

have an
infrastructure in this network that affects the security
concerns for
the network.

X In this network, there's no authentication involved.

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 Wireless Communication
- Overview
Wireless communication involves the
transmission of information over a
distance without the help of wires,
cables or any other forms of
electrical conductors.

Wireless communication is a broad

term that incorporates all procedures
and forms of connecting and
communicating between two or more
devices using a wireless signal
Retrieved July 2024, from
through wireless communication
Wireless Communication
- Overview
Features of Wireless Communication
The evolution of wireless technology has brought many
advancements with its effective features.

 The transmitted distance can be anywhere between a few

meters (for example, a television's remote control) and
thousands of kilometers (for example, radio communication).
 Wireless communication can be used for cellular telephony,
wireless access to the internet, wireless home networking, and
so on.
 Other examples of applications of radio wireless technology
include GPS units, garage door openers, wireless computer mice,
keyboards and headsets, headphones,
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2024, from https://www.naukri.com/code360/library/what-is-ad
 Wireless Communication
- Overview
Advantages of Wireless
Wireless communication has several advantages:

 Cost effectiveness
Wired communication entails the use of connection wires. In
wireless networks, communication does not require elaborate
physical infrastructure or maintenance practices. Hence the cost
is reduced.

 Flexibility
Wireless communication enables people to communicate
regardless of their location. It is not necessary to be in an office
or some telephone booth in order to pass and receive messages.
Miners in the outback can rely on satellite phones to call their
loved ones, and thus, help improve Retrieved
their July 2024, from
general https://www.naukri.com/code360/library/what-is-ad
welfare by
 Wireless Communication
- Overview
Advantages of Wireless
Wireless communication has several advantages:

 Convenience
Wireless communication devices like mobile phones are
quite simple and therefore allow anyone to use them,
wherever they may be. There is no need to physically
connect anything in order to receive or pass messages.

 Speed
Improvements can also be seen in speed. The network
connectivity or the accessibility were much improved in
accuracy and speed. Retrieved July 2024, from https://www.naukri.com/code360/library/what-is-ad
 Wireless Communication
- Overview
Advantages of Wireless
Wireless communication has several
advantages:

 Accessibility
The wireless technology helps easy accessibility as the
remote areas where ground lines can’t be properly laid,
are being easily connected to the network.

 Constant connectivity
Constant connectivity also ensures that people can
 Terms in Mobile
Telephony
Among the various terms used in Mobile telephony:

Mobile Station (MS) − The Mobile Station (MS) communicates the information with the user
and modifies it to the transmission protocols of the air interface to communicate with the BSS.
The user information communicates with the MS through a microphone and speaker for the
speech, keyboard and display for short messaging and the cable connection for other data
terminals. The mobile station has two elements Mobile Equipment (ME) and Subscriber Identity
Module (SIM).

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 Terms in Mobile
Telephony
Among the various terms used in Mobile telephony:

Mobile Equipment (ME) − ME is a piece of hardware that the customer purchases from the
equipment manufacturer. The hardware piece contains all the components needed for the
implementation of the protocols to interface with the user and the air-interface to the base stations.

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 Terms in Mobile
Telephony
Among the various terms used in Mobile telephony:

Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) − This is a smart card issued at the subscription to
identify the specifications of a user such as address and type of service. The calls in the GSM
are directed to the SIM rather than the terminal.
SMS are also stored in the SIM card. It carries every user's personal information which enables a
number of useful applications.

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 Terms in Mobile
Telephony
Among the various terms used in Mobile telephony:

Base Transceiver Station (BTS) − The user data transmission takes place between the
mobile phone and the base station (BS) through the base transceiver station. A transceiver is a
circuit which transmits and receives, i.e., does both.

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 Terms in Mobile
Telephony
Among the various terms used in Mobile telephony:

Mobile Switching Center (MSC) − MSC is the hardware part of the wireless switch that can
communicate with PSTN switches using the Signaling System 7 (SS7) protocol as well as other
MSCs in the coverage area of a service provider. The MSC also provides for communication with
other wired and wireless networks as well as support for registration and maintenance of the
connection with the mobile stations.

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 Terms in Mobile
Telephony
Among the various terms used in Mobile telephony:

Channels − It is a range of frequency allotted to particular service or systems.

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 Terms in Mobile
Telephony
Among the various terms used in Mobile telephony:

Control Channel − Radio channel used for transmission of call setup, call request, call initiation and other
beacon or control purposes.

Forward Control Channel(FCC) − Radio channel used for transmission of information from the base
station to the mobile

Reverse Channel(RC) − Radio channel used for transmission of information from the mobile to base
station.

Voice Channel(VC) − Radio channel used for voice or data transmission.

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 Terms in Mobile
Telephony
Among the various terms used in Mobile telephony:
Handoff − It is defined as the transferring a call from the channel or
base station to another base station.

Roamer − A mobile station which operates in a service area other than

that from which service has been subscribed

Transceiver − A device capable of simultaneously transmitting and

receiving radio signals.

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 Wireless Channel
Characteristics
The wireless channel is susceptible to a variety
of transmission impediments such as path loss,
interference and blockage. These factors
restrict the range, data rate, and the reliability
of the wireless transmission.

Types of Paths
The extent to which these factors affect the
transmission depends upon the environmental
conditions and the mobility of the transmitter
and receiver. The path followed by the signals to
get to the receiver, are two types, such as:

 Direct-path
The transmitted signal, when reaches the
receiver directly, can be termed as
a directpath and the components presents that
are present in the signal Retrieved
are July 2024, from https://www.naukri.com/code360/library/what-is-ad
called
 Wireless Channel
Characteristics
Multi-path
The transmitted signal when
reaches the receiver, through
different directions undergoing
different phenomenon, such a path
is termed as multi-path and the
components of the transmitted
signal are called as multi-path
components.
They are reflected, diffracted and
scattered by the environment, and
arrive at the receiver shifted in
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 Wireless Channel
Characteristics
The most important characteristics of wireless channel are:

o Path loss
o Fading
o Interference
o Doppler shift

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 Wireless Channel
Characteristics
The most important characteristics of wireless channel are:

o Path loss
Path loss can be expressed as the ratio of the power of the transmitted signal to the power of the same signal
received by the receiver, on a given path. It is a function of the propagation distance.

o Fading
Fading refers to the fluctuations in signal strength when received at the receiver. Fading can be classified in
to two types
 Fast fading/small scale fading and
 Slow fading/large scale fading

o Interference
Wireless transmissions have to counter interference from a wide variety of sources. Two main forms of
interference
 Adjacent channel interference
 Co-channel interference

o Doppler Shift
The Doppler shift is dependent upon the speed and
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from movement of the mobile station relative to
 MODULATION
TECHNIQUES
Modulation can be digital or analog, the input wave of the analog signal varies continuously
like a sine wave. Modulation can be defined as the process of converting data into waves by
adding information to a carrier signal. Such a signal can be transmitted electronically or
optically, but it must have a consistent waveform.

The process by which data is converted into electrical/digital signals for transferring that signal
over a medium is called modulation. It increases strength for maximum reach of the signals.
The process of extracting data from the transmitted signal is called demodulation. A Modem is
a device that performs both modulation and demodulation processes. The various forms of
modulation are designed to alter the characteristics of carrier waves. The most commonly
altered characteristics of modulation include amplitude, frequency, and phase.

 Carrier signal: The signals that contain no information but have a certain phase,
frequency, and amplitude are called carrier signals.
 Modulated signals: The signals which are the combination of the carrier signals and
modulation signals are modulated signals. The modulated signal is obtained after the
modulation of the signals. Retrieved July 2024, from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-mod
 MODULATION
TECHNIQUES
Types of Modulation

 Amplitude Modulation: It is a type of modulation in which only the amplitude of the

carrier signal is varied to represent the data being added to the signals whereas the phase
and the frequency of the signal are kept unchanged.
 Frequency Modulation: It is a type of modulation in which only the frequency of the
carrier signal is varied to represent the frequency of the data whereas the phase and the
amplitude of the signals are kept unchanged.
 Phase Modulation: It is a type of modulation in which the phase of the carrier signal is
varied to represent the data being added to the signal. Different information values are
represented by different phases. For example: ‘1’ may be represented by 0° while ‘0’ by
180°.
 Polarisation Modulation: Polarisation modulation involves varying the angle of rotation of
an optical carrier signal to reflect transmitted data.
 Pulse-Code Modulation: An analog signal is sampled to generate a data stream, which is
then utilized to modulate a digital carrier signal.
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): Quadrature amplitude modulation employs
two AM carriers to encode two or moreRetrieved
bits in aJuly 2024,
single from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-mo
transmission.
 MODULATION
TECHNIQUES

Need of Modulation

 Size of Antenna: As we know that the size of the antenna is inversely

proportional to the frequency of the radiated signal and antenna size must be
1/10th of the wavelength. If the frequency signals are more than 5KHz in that case
it is quite impossible to set up an antenna of that size. So, by using the modulation
technique the size of the antenna is reduced.
 Wireless Communication: Modulation provides a wireless connection to transmit
the signals to a longer distance. Earlier we used wire systems (like the telephone)
to transfer information with the help of telephonic wires but it was not possible to
spread the wires all over the world for communication. By using the modulation
technique, the cost of wire is saved and even information can be transferred to
longer distances faster. Retrieved July 2024, from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-modu
 MODULATION
TECHNIQUES
Why use Modulation in Communication?

Multiple carriers of various frequencies can frequently be sent across

the same medium, with each carrier modulated by a separate signal.
For Example Wi-Fi employs individual channels to transmit and receive
data from several customers at the same time. A carrier signal is used
to decrease the wavelength for more effective transmission and
reception. Because the ideal antenna size is one-half or one-quarter of
a wavelength, an audio frequency of 3000 Hz needs a wavelength of
100 kilometers and a 25-kilometer antenna. Instead, with a 100 MHz
FM carrier and a wavelength of 3 meters, the antenna would only need
Retrieved July 2024, from https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-is-modulation/
to be 80 cm long.
 MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES
In wireless communication systems, it is
often desirable to allow the subscriber to
send information simultaneously from
the mobile station to the base station
while receiving information from the
base station to the mobile station.

A cellular system divides any given area

into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The
main aim in the cellular system design is
to be able to increase the capacity of
the channel, i.e., to handle as many
calls as possible in a given bandwidth
with a sufficient level of quality of
 MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES

There are several different ways to

allow access to the channel. These
includes mainly the following:

 Frequency division multiple-access

(FDMA)
 Time division multiple-access
(TDMA)
 Code division multiple-access
(CDMA)
 Space division multiple access
(SDMA)
 MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES
There are several different ways to
allow access to the channel. These
includes mainly the following:

 Frequency division multiple-access

(FDMA)
 Time division multiple-access
(TDMA)
 Code division multiple-access
(CDMA)
 Space division multiple access
(SDMA)
 MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES
Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these techniques can be
classified as narrowband and wideband systems.

Narrowband Systems
Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the coherence bandwidth are called as
Narrow band systems. Narrow band TDMA allows users to use the same channel but allocates a
unique time slot to each user on the channel, thus separating a small number of users in time on a
single channel.

Wideband Systems
In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading doesn’t greatly affect the received signal
within a wideband channel, and frequency selective fades occur only in a small fraction of the signal
bandwidth.
MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES
MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES
MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES
MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES
MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES
MULTIPLE ACCESS
TECHNIQUES
 VOICE CODING
Speech coding is the process of
obtaining a compact representation of
voice signals for efficient transmission
over band-limited wired and wireless
channels and/or storage. Today, speech
coders have become essential
components in telecommunications and
in the multimedia infrastructure.
Commercial systems that rely on efficient
speech coding include cellular
communication, voice over internet
protocol (VOIP), videoconferencing,
electronic toys, archiving, and digital
simultaneous voice and data (DSVD), as
well as numerous PC-based games and
multimedia applications.
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 VOICE CODING
Speech coding is the art of creating a
minimally redundant representation of the
speech signal that can be efficiently
transmitted or stored in digital media, and
decoding the signal with the best possible
perceptual quality. Like any other continuous-
time signal, speech may be represented
digitally through the processes of sampling
and quantization; speech is typically
quantized using either 16-bit uniform or 8-bit
companded quantization. Like many other
signals, however, a sampled speech signal
contains a great deal of information that is
either redundant (nonzero mutual information
between successive samples in the signal) or
perceptually irrelevant (information that is not
perceived by human listeners).

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 VOICE CODING
A speech coder converts a digitized speech signal
into a coded representation, which is usually
transmitted in frames. A speech decoder receives
coded frames and synthesizes reconstructed
speech. Standards typically dictate the input–output
relationships of both coder and decoder. . Speech
coders differ primarily in bit rate (measured in bits
per sample or bits per second), complexity
(measured in operations per second), delay
(measured in milliseconds between recording and
playback), and perceptual quality of the synthesized
speech. Narrowband (NB) coding refers to coding of
speech signals whose bandwidth is less than 4 kHz
(8 kHz sampling rate), while wideband (WB) coding
refers to coding of 7-kHz-bandwidth signals (14–16
kHz sampling rate). NB coding is more common
than WB coding mainly because of the narrowband
nature of the wireline telephone channel (300–3600
Hz). More recently, however, there has been an
increased effort in wideband speech coding because
of several applications such as videoconferencing.
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VOICE CODING

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VOICE CODING

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 VOICE CODING

Speech codec techniques

There are various techniques adopted in
wireless mobile phones for speech codec
(compression and decompression)
purpose. This includes PCM, ADPCM,
CELP, EVRC.
GSM uses 13 kbps speech data rate using
CELP technique. The other speech codec
available in GSM include FR (Full Rate),
HR (Half Rate), EFR (Enhanced Full Rate)
and AMR (Adaptive Multi Rate). FR
provides 13 kbps, HR provides 6.5kbps,
EFR provides 12.2kbps and AMR provides
from 4.75 to about 12.2 kbps. CDMA uses
various speech codec rates such as
8.55kbps/9.6kbps/13.3kbps with CELP
speech codec.

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 VOICE CODING
PCM speech codec :
PCM means Pulse Code Modulation and is the technique used in telephone
exchanges on subscriber wire line. It has about 64kbps line rate. Following diagram
depicts typical PCM encoding and PCM decoding process.

ADPCM speech codec :

Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation is a technique used to reduce
speech coding rate achieved using previous PCM technique. With ADPCM one can
achieve about 16-32 kbps of speech rate. It also helps achieve better S/N over
previous PCM technique. PCM and ADPCM both operate in time domain.

CELP speech codec:

With CELP (Code Excited Linear Prediction) algorithms are designed to achieve
about 8kbps/4.8Kbps of speech compression maintaining the acceptable speech
quality. Following are the standards most popular for CELP based codec design.

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 VOICE CODING
G.728 - It is the standard which performs speech coding at 16 kbps and LD-
CELP( Low Delay Code Excited Linear Prediction) speech codec is used for this
purpose.

G.729 - It is the standard which performs audio compression and provides 8 kbps
speech rate. CS-ACELP (Conjugate Structure Algebraic Code Excited Linear
Prediction) technique is used for this purpose.

Enhanced Variable Rate Codec(EVRC):

EVRC technique offers high quality voice by reducing no. of bits needed for
coefficients(predictor-linear type). It suppresses background noise and hence further
enhances voice quality. EVRC uses RCELP(Relaxed Code Excited Linear Prediction)
algorithm. In EVRC, there are speech categories which include Full rate-
8.55kbps,half rate-4kbps and 1/8 rate-0.8kbps, used in CDMA. The frames are
formed every 20 ms similar to GSM.

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 ERROR CONTROL
Error Control Techniques

Error control refers to a mechanism to detect and correct

errors that occur in the transmission of frames/ message
packets.

Data are sent as a sequence of frames. Frames arrive in

the same order in which they are sent, and each
transmitted frame suffers an arbitrary and variable
amount of delay before reception.

During transmission, there is possibility of 2 types of

errors:
 Lost frame: A frame fails to arrive at the other side. A
noise burst may damage a frame to the extent that the
receiver is not aware that a frame has been
transmitted.
 Damaged frame: A recognizable frame does arrive but
some
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bits are in error, i.e. they have been altered
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during transmission.
 ERROR CONTROL
Error Control Techniques

The most common techniques for error control are based

on some or all of the following:

 Error detection: Using parity check or CRC check.

Positive acknowledgement: The destination returns a
positive acknowledgement to successfully received, error-
free frames.
 Re-transmission after timeout: The source re-
transmits a frame that has not been acknowledged
after a predetermined amount of time.
 Negative acknowledgement and re-
transmission: The destination returns a negative
acknowledgement to frames in which an error is
detected. The source re-transmits such frames.

Collectively, these mechanisms are referred to as

Automatic-Repeat-Request (ARQ).
Retrom https://www.how2lab.com/internet/computer-networks/error-control-techniques#:~:text=Error%20control%20refers%20to
%20a,amount%20of%20delay%20before%20reception.
 ERROR CONTROL
Stop – and –wait ARQ
In Stop-and-Wait ARQ sender (say station A) transmits a single frame and then waits till it
receives a positive acknowledgement (ACK) or a negative acknowledgement (NACK) from the
receiver (say station B). No other data frames can be sent until the destination station’s reply
arrives at the source station.

The frame transmitted by the source could suffer an error. If the error is detected by the
destination, it discards the frame and sends a NACK, causing the source to re-transmit the
damaged frame. On the other hand, if the transmitted frame is so corrupted by noise as not
to be received, the destination will not respond. To account for this possibility, the source is
equipped with a timer. After a frame is transmitted, the source waits for an acknowledgement
(ACK or NACK). If no recognizable acknowledgement is received (i.e. either no
acknowledgement was received or a damaged acknowledgement was received) during the
timeout period, then the frame is re-transmitted.

This mechanism requires that the source maintain a copy of the transmitted frame until an
ACK is received for the frame.
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 ERROR CONTROL
Stop – and –wait ARQ
It is quite possible that a frame was sent
correctly, but the ACK was damaged in transit,
then the source will timeout and re-transmit that
frame. The destination will now receive and
accept two copies of the same frame. To avoid
this problem, frames are alternately labeled with
0 or 1 and positive acknowledgements are of the
form ACK0 or ACK1 - an ACK0 (ACK1)
acknowledges receipt of a frame numbered 1 (0)
and indicates that the receiver is ready for a
frame numbered 0 (1).

Stop–and–wait ARQ is simple but it is an

inefficient protocol as it makes inefficient use of
the transmission line.
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 ERROR CONTROL
Go – back – N ARQ
One variant of continuous ARQ is
known as Go-back-N ARQ. In this
technique, a station may send a
series of frames determined by
window size, using the sliding-
window flow control technique.
While no errors occur, the
destination will acknowledge
(ACK) incoming frames as usual.

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 ERROR CONTROL
Go – back – N ARQ
Consider that station A is sending frames to station B. After each transmission, A sets an
acknowledgement timer for the frame just transmitted. The Go-back-N technique takes
into account the following contingencies:

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 ERROR CONTROL

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 ERROR CONTROL

Selective – reject ARQ

With selective-reject ARQ, the only frames re-

transmitted are those that receive a NACK or
which time out. This would appear to be more
efficient than the Go-back-N approach, since
it minimizes the amount of re-transmission.
On the other hand, the receiver must contain
storage to save post NACK frames, until the
frame in error is transmitted, and contain
logic for re-inserting that frame in the proper
sequence. The transmitter too, will require
more complex logic to be able to send frames
out of sequence. Because of such
complications, the selective-reject ARQ is
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rarely implemented.
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 COMPUTER
NETWORK

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%20and%20telecommunications%20networks.
 COMPUTER
NETWORK
Types of Wireless Network Connections
LAN
A local-area network is a computer network that exists at a single site, such as an office building. It can be used to
connect a variety of components, such as computers, printers, and data storage devices. LANs consist of
components like switches, access points, routers, firewalls, and Ethernet cables to tie it all together. Wi-Fi is the
most commonly known wireless LAN.

PAN
A personal-area network consists of a network centralized around the devices of a single person in a single location.
A PAN could have computers, phones, video game consoles, or other peripheral devices. They are common inside
homes and small office buildings. Bluetooth is the most commonly known wireless PAN.

MAN
A metropolitan-area network is a computer network that spans across a city, small geographical area, or business or
college campus. One feature that differentiates a MAN from a LAN is its size. A LAN usually consists of a solitary
building or area. A MAN can cover several square miles, depending on the needs of the organization.
Large companies, for example, may use a MAN if they have a spacious campus and need to manage key
components, such as HVAC and electrical systems.

WAN
A wide-area network covers a very large area, like an entire city, state, or country. In fact, the internet is a WAN. Like
the internet, a WAN can contain smaller networks, including LANs or MANs. Cellular services are the most commonly
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known wireless WANs.
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 COMPUTER
NETWORK

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%20and%20telecommunications%20networks.
 COMPUTER
NETWORK

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%20and%20telecommunications%20networks.
 COMPUTER
NETWORK

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%20and%20telecommunications%20networks.
 WI-FI NETWORK
STANDARDS
The networking standard used by wireless architecture is IEEE 802.11. However, this standard is in
continual development and new amendments come out regularly. Amendments to the standard are
assigned letters, and while many amendments have been released, the most commonly known are:

802.11a
This original amendment added support for the 5 GHz band, allowing transmission up to 54
megabits of data per second. The 802.11a standard makes use of orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM). It splits the radio signal into sub-signals before they get to a receiver.
802.11a is an older standard and has been largely replaced by newer technology.

802.11b
802.11b added faster rates in the 2.4GHz band to the original standard. It can pass up to 11
megabits of data in a second. It uses complementary code keying (CCK) modulation to achieve
better speeds. 802.11b is an older standard and has been largely replaced by newer technology.

802.11g
802.11g standardized the use of OFDM technology used in 802.11a in the 2.4GHz band. It was
backwards compatible with both 802.11 and 802.11b. 802.11g is an older standard and has been
largely replaced by newer technology.
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%20and%20telecommunications%20networks.
 WI-FI NETWORK
STANDARDS
The networking standard used by wireless architecture is IEEE 802.11. However, this standard is in
continual development and new amendments come out regularly. Amendments to the standard are
assigned letters, and while many amendments have been released, the most commonly known are:

802.11n
Once the most popular standard 802.11n was the first time a unified specification covered both the
2.4GHz and 5GHz bands. This protocol offers better speed when compared to those that came
before it by leveraging the idea of transmitting using multiple antennas simultaneously (usually
called Multiple In Multiple Out or MIMO technology). 802.11n is an older standard, but some older
devices may still be found in use.

802.11ac
802.11ac was only specified for the 5GHz band. It built upon the mechanisms introduced in
802.11n. While not as revolutionary as 802.11n was, it still extended speeds and capabilities in the
5GHz band. Most devices currently out in the wild are likely 802.11ac devices.
802.11ac technology was released in two main groups, usually called ‘waves’. The primary
difference is that Wave 2 devices have a few more technical capabilities when compared to Wave 1,
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%20and%20telecommunications%20networks.
but it is all interoperable.
 WI-FI NETWORK
STANDARDS
The networking standard used by wireless architecture is IEEE 802.11. However, this standard is in
continual development and new amendments come out regularly. Amendments to the standard are
assigned letters, and while many amendments have been released, the most commonly known are:

802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6)
802.11ax (much like 802.11n) unified the specification across all applicable frequency bands. In
the name of simplicity, the industry has started to refer to it as Wi-Fi 6. Wi-Fi 6 has expanded the
technologies used for modulation to include OFDMA, which allows a certain amount of parallelism
to the transmission of packets within the system, making more efficient use of the available
spectrum and improving the overall network throughput. Wi-Fi 6 is the latest technology and is
what most new devices are shipping with.

Other 802.11 Standards

There are many more amendments that have been made to the standards over the years (most
letters of the alphabet have been used over time). Additional 802.11 standards have focused on
things like better security, increased Quality of Service, as well as many other enhancements.
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 WI-FI NETWORK
STANDARDS

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%20and%20telecommunications%20networks.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
WLANs

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%20Wireless%20Local%20Area%20Network%20(WLAN)%20is%20based%20on%20high,or%20more%20than%20two%20devices.
FUNDAMENTALS OF
WLANs
 FUNDAMENTALS OF
WLANs

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 FUNDAMENTALS OF
WLANs

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%20Wireless%20Local%20Area%20Network%20(WLAN)%20is%20based%20on%20high,or%20more%20than%20two%20devices.
 BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless
voice and data communication. It is a
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
technology and is used for data
communications over smaller distances.
This generation changed into being
invented via Ericson in 1994. It operates
within the unlicensed, business, scientific,
and clinical (ISM) bands from 2.4 GHz to
2.485 GHz.
Bluetooth stages up to 10 meters.
Depending upon the version, it presents
information up to at least 1 Mbps or 3
Mbps. The spreading method that it uses is
FHSS (Frequency-hopping unfold spectrum).
A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and
a group of interconnected piconets is called
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 BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth is a wireless technology that
lets devices like phones, tablets, and
headphones connect to each other and
share information without needing
cables. Bluetooth simply follows the
principle of transmitting and receiving
data using radio waves. It can be paired
with the other device which has also
Bluetooth but it should be within the
estimated communication range to
connect. When two devices start to
share data, they form a network called
piconet which can further
accommodate more than five devices.

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 BLUETOOTH

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 BLUETOOTH

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 BLUETOOTH

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 BLUETOOTH

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 BLUETOOTH

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 BLUETOOTH

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