Chapter Three

Protocols
Contents
 Network Protocol Basics
 Protocol Suites & Industry Standards
 Layered Models
 TCP/IP protocol architecture
 The OSI Model
 Signal Encoding Techniques
 Switching and Multiplexing (Reading Assignment)
 Protocol Basics
• Network protocols are the set of rules and standards that allow different devices to communicate with each
other.
• A network protocol is a set of established rules that dedicate how to format, transmit and receive data so
that computer network devices can communicate with each other.
• A protocol suite is a set of protocols that work together to provide comprehensive network communication
services.
• Protocol suites are implemented by hosts and networking devices in software, hardware or both.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite is an open standard, the protocols are freely available, and any vendor is able to
implement these protocols.
• The protocols are viewed in terms of layers, with each higher level service depending on the functionality
defined by the protocols shown in the lower levels.

• A protocol architecture is the layered structure of hardware and software that supports the exchange of
data between systems and supports distributed applications, such as electronic mail and file transfer.
• These rules are human-made!
Who makes protocols?
Why different protocols exist?
.

AppleTalk was once the dominant networking protocol for LAN-based Macintosh
computers.
It was primarily used for file sharing and access to network printers, but has since
been replaced by TCP/IP.
 Network Protocols….
Protocol suite examples
 Network Protocols
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) and BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol) are both network
protocols used to assign IP addresses and other network configuration parameters to network
devices, particularly during the boot process.

• BOOTP offers basic configuration options, primarily providing an IP address, subnet mask,
default gateway, and a boot file path for diskless clients.
• DHCP provides a broader range of configuration options, including IP address assignment,
subnet mask, default gateway, DNS server addresses, NTP server addresses, and various other
parameters. DHCP is highly flexible and can support a wider range of network scenarios.
• BOOTP was developed in the 1980s and was primarily used for diskless workstations to obtain
an IP address and boot information from a BOOTP server. It has limited capabilities and is
considered the predecessor of DHCP.

• DHCP is a more advanced and evolved protocol developed to address some of the limitations
of BOOTP. It was introduced in the early 1990s and has since become the standard for dynamic
IP address allocation in modern networks.
 How BOOTP Works
• The Bootstrap Protocol operates using a client-server model.
• The BOOTP client sends a BOOTP request, and the BOOTP server responds to the client with
the required information for network configuration.
• The process can be outlined in the following steps:
1. BOOTP Request: The BOOTP client, typically a workstation or device without a hard drive,
broadcasts a BOOTREQUEST packet on the network. This packet includes the client’s MAC
address and, optionally, its hostname.
2. BOOTP Reply: The BOOTP server or servers on the network receive the BOOTREQUEST
packet. If a server can service the client, it responds with a BOOTREPLY packet. This packet
includes the IP address for the client, the subnet mask, the default gateway, and potentially
other information, such as the address of a server from which the client can load its
operating system.
3. Client Configuration: Upon receiving the BOOTREPLY packet, the client can configure its
network interface and continue its boot process, potentially loading its operating system
from the network if necessary.
 How BOOTP Works
• The Bootstrap Protocol operates using a client-server model.
 Relationship Between BOOTP and DHCP
• The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) evolved from BOOTP.
• It was developed to offer more sophisticated management of IP address allocation and to
provide a larger set of network configuration parameters to clients.
• While DHCP is more versatile than BOOTP, the designers of DHCP wanted to ensure backward
compatibility.
• DHCP servers can often respond to BOOTP client requests, and DHCP messages have a similar
format to BOOTP messages.
Limitations of BOOTP
Manual Configuration: Each BOOTP client requires a pre-configured file on the server, which
can make it challenging to manage in larger networks.
Lack of Releasing Mechanism: Unlike DHCP, BOOTP doesn’t have a mechanism for releasing IP
addresses. This lack can lead to inefficient usage of IP addresses in some networks.
Limited Configuration Parameters: BOOTP provides fewer configuration options than DHCP.
While it can supply the necessary information for a client to join the network and boot its
operating system, DHCP can provide additional parameters, such as domain name servers, NTP
servers, and more.
 What is DHCP?
• DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, and it is a service that assigns IP
addresses and other network configuration parameters to devices automatically.
• DHCP works by using a client-server model, where a device that needs an IP address (the
client) sends a request to a device that has a pool of IP addresses to offer (the server).
• The server then responds with an IP address and other information, such as the subnet mask,
the default gateway, and the DNS servers.
• The client then uses this information to configure its network interface and join the network.
Why is DHCP useful?
• DHCP is useful because it simplifies the management of IP networks and reduces the risk of
errors and conflicts.
• Without DHCP, network administrators would have to assign IP addresses manually to each
device, which would be time-consuming and prone to mistakes.
• DHCP also allows devices to change their IP addresses dynamically, which is helpful when they
move from one network to another, or when the network conditions change.
• DHCP also enables efficient use of IP addresses, as it only assigns them for a limited period of
time (called a lease), and releases them when they are no longer needed.
 What is DHCP?
• How can you troubleshoot DHCP issues?
• If you're having issues with your IP network, such as not being able to connect to the internet
or access other devices, you may need to troubleshoot your DHCP settings.
• To do this, you should first check your network connection and make sure it is enabled and
working properly.
• Then, use the ipconfig command on Windows or the ifconfig command on Linux to verify your
IP address is valid and not conflicting with another device.
• Additionally, use the ping command to test the connectivity between your device and the
DHCP server.
• Then, use the ipconfig /renew command on Windows or the dhclient command on Linux to
renew your DHCP lease and request a new IP address.
• Lastly, check your firewall and antivirus settings to ensure they are not blocking or interfering
with the DHCP traffic.
 E-mail Protocols : POP-SMTP-IMAP
What is POP3?
• Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is a standard mail protocol used to receive emails from a
remote server to a local email client.
• POP3 allows you to download email messages on your local computer and read them even when
you are offline.
What is IMAP?
• The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a mail protocol used for accessing email on a remote
web server from a local client. IMAP and POP3 are the two most commonly used Internet mail
protocols for retrieving emails.
• Both protocols are supported by all modern email clients and web servers.
What is SMTP?
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the standard protocol for sending emails across the Internet.
• SMTP uses TCP port 25 or 2525 and sometimes you can have problems sending your messages in
case your ISP has closed port 25 (How to check if port 25 is open?)=Type telnet MAILSERVER 25, If
that port is blocked, you will receive a connection error.
• To determine the SMTP server for a given domain name, the MX (Mail eXchange) DNS record is
used.
 20 different network protocols commonly used in networking:
1. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP): The most widely used protocol suite
for connecting devices to the Internet.
2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): A connectionless protocol that does not provide reliable
communication, but is used for real-time applications such as video streaming and online
gaming.
3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): The protocol used for transferring data between web
servers and web browsers.
4. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): A protocol used to transfer files between devices on a network.
5. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): A protocol used to transfer email messages between
servers.
6. Post Office Protocol (POP): A protocol used to retrieve email from a mail server.
7. Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP): A protocol used to retrieve email from a mail server
that offers more advanced features than POP.
8. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): A protocol used to manage and monitor
devices on a network.
9. Domain Name System (DNS): A protocol used to translate domain names into IP addresses.
 20 different network protocols commonly used in networking:
10. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP): A protocol used to automatically assign IP addresses to devices
on a network.
11. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): A protocol used to map IP addresses to MAC addresses on a local
network.
12. Routing Information Protocol (RIP): A routing protocol used to exchange routing information between
routers.
13. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): A more advanced routing protocol used to exchange routing information
between routers in larger networks.
14. Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): A protocol used to exchange routing information between Internet service
providers (ISPs).
15. Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL): A protocol used for authentication and security in email,
LDAP, and other network protocols.
16. Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP): A protocol used to access and manage directory services.
17. Network Time Protocol (NTP): A protocol used to synchronize the clocks on devices on a network.
18. Secure Shell (SSH): A protocol used to secure remote access to devices on a network.
19. Virtual Private Network (VPN): A protocol used to establish secure connections between devices on different
networks over the internet.
20. Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP): A protocol used for instant messaging and presence
 How Network Protocols Work
• Network protocols take large-scale processes and break them down into small,
specific tasks or functions.
• This occurs at every level of the network, and each function must cooperate at
each level to complete the larger task at hand.
• The term protocol suite refers to a set of smaller network protocols working in
conjunction with each other.
• Network protocols are typically created according to industry standard by various
networking or information technology organizations.
• The following groups have defined and published different network protocols:
 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 The International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
 The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
 Who Uses Network Protocols?
• Network protocols aren’t only relevant to certified network specialists or IT
professionals.
• Billions of people use network protocols daily, whether they know it or not.
• Every time you use the internet, you leverage network protocols.
• These rules, or protocols, must be followed for the message to be successfully delivered and
understood.
• Protocols must account for the following requirements:
 An identified sender and receiver
 Agreed-upon method of communicating (face-to-face, telephone, letter, photograph)
 Common language and grammar
 Speed and timing of delivery
 Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements
 Network Protocols?
• Just like humans, computers use rules, or protocols, to communicate.
• Protocols are required for computers to properly communicate across the
network.
• In both wired and wireless environment, a local network is defined as an area
where all hosts must “speak the same language,” which in computer terms means
they must “share a common protocol.”
• If everyone in the same room spoke a different language, they would not be able
to communicate.
• Likewise, if devices in a local network did not use the same protocols, they would
not be able to communicate.
• Networking protocols define many aspects of communication over the local
network.
 Protocols……
Rule Establishment
• Individuals must use established rules or agreements to govern the conversation.
• The first message is difficult to read because it is not formatted properly.
• The second shows the message properly formatted
Protocol Characteristics……

• Protocols characteristics include message format, message size, timing, encoding,

encapsulation, and message patterns.
• Message format:-When a message is sent, it must use a specific format or
structure.
• Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that is used to deliver
the message.

• Message size:- The rules that govern the size of the pieces communicated across
the network are very strict. They can also be different, depending on the channel
used.
• When a long message is sent from one host to another over a network, breaking the
message into smaller pieces might be necessary to ensure that the message can be
delivered reliably.
 Protocol Characteristics……
• Timing:- Message timing is also very important in network communications.
Message timing includes the following:
 Flow Control – This is the process of managing the rate of data transmission. Flow
control defines how much information can be sent and the speed at which it can be
delivered. For example, if one person speaks too quickly, it may be difficult for the
receiver to hear and understand the message. In network communication, there are
network protocols used by the source and destination devices to negotiate and manage
the flow of information.
 Response Timeout – If a person asks a question and does not hear a response within
an acceptable amount of time, the person assumes that no answer is coming and reacts
accordingly. The person may repeat the question or instead, may go on with the
conversation. Hosts on the network use network protocols that specify how long to wait
for responses and what action to take if a response timeout occurs.
 Access method – This determines when someone can send a message. When a device
wants to transmit on a wireless LAN, it is necessary for the WLAN network interface
card (NIC) to determine whether the wireless medium is available or not. Either
CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA, Token ring? Hosts on a network need to know when to begin
sending messages and how to respond when collisions occur.
 Protocol Characteristics……..
• Encoding:- One of the steps to send a message is encoding. Encoding is the process of
converting information into another acceptable form, for transmission. Decoding reverses this
process to interpret the information.

• Encapsulation:- Each message transmitted on a network must include a header that contains
addressing information that identifies the source and destination hosts; otherwise, it cannot be
delivered.
• Encapsulation is the process of adding this information to the pieces of data that make up the
message.

• Message pattern:-Some messages require an acknowledgment before the next message can be
sent.
• This type of request/response pattern is a common aspect of many networking protocols.
• However, other types of messages may be simply streamed across the network, without
concern as to whether they reach their destination like TCP or UDP.
PROTOCOLS & Standards
The key elements of protocol:
1. Syntax-refers to structure & format of the data.
2. Semantics- refers the meaning of each section of bits.
3. Timing-refers two characteristics: when data should be sent & how fast it should be sent.

• Standard is a comprehensive document developed for communication.

• An association of organizations, governments, manufacturers and users form the standard
organizations and are responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining the network
standards.
• The intent is that all data communications equipment manufacturers and users fulfil with
these standards.

• The primary standards organizations for data communication are:

1. The regulatory bodies [ISO, FCC, ETSI,EIA, ANSI, ITU-T]
2. Standard development [IEEE, IETF]
22
3. Compatibility testing [Wi-Fi alliance]
The standard organization detailed as an examples

• A regulatory domain.. can be defined as a bounded area that is controlled by a set of laws
or policies. They set the boundaries or the rules for what the user can do with wired and
wireless transmission.

• Standard development orgs.--- Develop a standard with in the boundaries given by the
regulatory bodies.

• Compatibility testing is an organization that certifies equipment to be interoperable with

other equipment in the LAN and WLAN industry based on their certification standards.
• Or it certifies that the devices working together across the boundaries capability.
• It checks the compatibility of devices, protocols, data models, service request protocols and
so on.

23
.

24
Standards work with hierarchy
Example IEEE hierarchy
• IEEE is an organization that creates standards that we use to communicate.
• It specify standards based on regulations defined by regulatory bodies.
• It has three hierarchies project, working groups and task groups.
Project- is the top level IEEE family.
-802 project is one of the IEEE projects
-focuses on both wired and wireless standard developments
Working groups
• projects are subdivided into working groups
• It focuses on specific technology
• Aims to develop standard that address specific problems
• 802.3, 802.11, 802.15, 802.16, 802.20 are examples of working groups.
• 802.3 focuses only on ethernet LANs (Wired networks)
• 802.11 specifically develops a standard for wireless networks
• 802.15 focus on Bluetooth technology
• 802.16 covers for WiMAX
• 802.20 focus for mobile broadband access 25
Task groups
• Working groups are further classified into task groups
• Task groups focus on a specific modifications or details of a technology
• 802.11n and 802.11i were task groups
• 802.11n focuses on MIMO technology giving as faster data rate and greater stability.
• 802.11i focus on enhancing the security for 802.11 protocols

The need for new standards

For better modulation techniques
For faster data rates ex…2G, 3G, 4G, 5G….
To get greater quality of service
To enhance security measures
To get better roaming services
26
Different standards
1. International Standard Organization (ISO)
• ISO is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects.
• It is comprised mainly of members from the standards committee of various governments
throughout the world.
• It is even responsible for developing models which provides high level of system compatibility,
quality enhancement, improved productivity and reduced costs.
• The ISO is also responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work of the other standards
organizations.
2.International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector(ITU-T)
• ITU-T is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union based in
Geneva, Switzerland.
• It has developed three sets of specifications: the V series for modem interfacing and data
transmission over telephone lines, the X series for data transmission over public digital networks,
email and directory services; the I and Q series for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its
extension Broadband ISDN.
• ITU-T membership consists of government authorities and representatives from many countries and
it is the present standards organization for the United Nations. 27
3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• IEEE is an international professional organization founded in United States and is compromised of
electronics, computer and communications engineers.
• It is currently the world’s largest professional society with over 200,000 members.
• It develops communication and information processing standards with the underlying goal of
advancing theory, creativity, and product quality in any field related to electrical engineering
4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• ANSI is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S voting representative for
the ISO.
• ANSI is a completely private, non-profit organization comprised of equipment manufacturers and
users of data processing equipment and services.
• ANSI membership is comprised of people form professional societies, industry associations,
governmental and regulatory bodies, and consumer goods.
5. Electronics Industry Association (EIA)
• EIA is a non-profit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends industrial standards.
• EIA activities include standards development, increasing public awareness, and lobbying and it is
responsible for developing the RS (recommended standard) series
of standards for data and communications. 28
Layered Architectures
• In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided into small tasks.
• Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works dedicatedly to process the task only.
• To reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organized as a series of layers or levels, each one
build upon one below it.
• The basic idea of a layered architecture is to divide the design into small pieces.
• The benefits of using a layered model/architecture such as TCP/IP or OSI includes:
 Assisting in protocol design since protocols at each layer have defined functions.
 Modularity and clear interfaces
 Fostering competition because products from different vendors can work together.
 Preventing technology changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
 Providing a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities.
• A basic principle is to ensure independence of layers by defining services provided by each layer to the next
higher layer without defining how the services are to be performed. This permits changes in a layer without
affecting other layers.
• The basic elements of a layered model are services, protocols and interfaces.
• The messages from one layer to another are sent through those interfaces.
• Two well known layered architectures OSI and TCP/IP for data communication.
OSI MODEL
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as a model for a computer
protocol architecture and as a framework for developing protocol standards.
• The model is called the ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference
Model because it deals with connecting open.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that
allows communication between all types of computer systems.
• The intent of the OSI model is that protocols be developed to perform the
functions of each layer.
• It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of
the process of moving information across a network.
• It is a system that helps you break network functions.
Standardization within the OSI Framework
• The principal motivation for the development of the OSI model was to provide a
framework for standardization.
• Within the model, one or more protocol standards can be developed at each layer.
• The model defines the functions to be performed at each layer and facilitates the
standards-making process in two ways:
Because the functions of each layer are well defined, standards can be developed
independently and simultaneously for each layer. This speeds up the standards-making
process.
Because the boundaries between layers are well defined, changes in standards in one layer
need not affect already existing software in another layer. This makes it easier to introduce
new standards.

• The overall communication function is decomposed into seven distinct layers.

• That is, the overall function is broken up into a number of modules, making the interfaces
between modules as simple as possible.
• In addition, the design principle of information hiding is used: Lower layers are concerned
with greater levels of detail; upper layers are independent of these details. Each layer provides
services to the next higher layer and implements a protocol to the peer layer in other systems.
OSI layers

Purpose of OSI Layered architecture

 Helps to “break down” network functions.
 Creates standards for equipment manufacturing.
 Allows vendors to focus in specialized areas of
network.
Understanding the layers of OSI
Understanding the layers of OSI with examples
Cisco.com
192.168.1.10 200.1.20.25
OSI layer
OSI layers….
2. Data Link Layer
• The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link.
• It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).

• Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

Framing-The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data
units called frames.
• Physical addressing-If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds a
header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system
outside the sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network to the
next one.
• Flow control- the speed of sending and receiving data should be equal.

• Error control-The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
• Access control-When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time. 37
3. Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet,
possibly across multiple networks (links).

Responsibilities
Logical addressing-The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles
the addressing problem locally.
If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing system to help
distinguish the source and destination systems.

Routing-When independent networks or links are connected to create networks or a large

network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the packets
to their final destination.
One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this mechanism. (Finding best
path)

38
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
 Service-point addressing-Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this reason, source-to-destination
delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program) on one
computer to a specific process (running program) on the other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of
address called a service-point address (or port address).
(defines well-known services or ports).
 Segmentation and reassembly-A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment containing a
sequence number.
 Connection control-The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.
(dictates how the data to be sent) reliable or unreliable.
Flow control-Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control.
However, flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
Error control-Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control.
Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
Understanding the difference between TCP and UDP
TCP three way handshake
TCP sequence numbers and Acknowledgments 39
 Best-effort delivery describes a network
service in which the network does not provide
any guarantee that data is delivered or that
delivery meets any quality of service. In a best-
effort network, all users obtain best-effort
service.

TCP Sequence and ACK numbers

TCP window
Sliding used to manage
the flow of
packets between
two computers or

network hosts.

40
5. Session Layer
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
among communicating systems.
Responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
 Session Creation– For Example when you start doing an online transaction, first a request will be sent from
your mobile to CBE server.
 Permission to create a session---In the response from CBE server, it will give you a permission to create a
session. With that the server then given you authorization. Authorization is the set of privileges.
 Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the communication
between two processes to take place in either half duplex or full-duplex mode.
 Synchronization--Session layer also provides synchronization. For example, during webinar, we see that, a
person is speaking something, his lips are saying something else.
 Check-pointing ---Along side, session layer also performs checkpointing. Suppose, you are simply
downloading a video (video size=500 MB). After every 100 MB, there is a checkpoint. Suppose your video
downloading stops at 250 MB (due to connection break), next time when you resume, it will start from 200
MB, not from zero again. It will automatically start from last checkpoint. Due to this performance improves
and time are saved.
 Session Restoration--Another responsibility of session layer is session restoration. Let us understand it with a
simple example, sometimes we open multiple tabs in our browser (e.g., Mozilla Firefox). Suppose, our system
suddenly shuts down due to power cut, so when restart the system, there is an option of restore. If you
41 click
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems.
Specific responsibilities:
Translation: The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information in
the form of character strings, numbers,& so on. The information must be changed to bit streams
before being transmitted. The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from
its sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving
machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is
responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods.
Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy.
Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and
sends the resulting message out over the network.
Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.

Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information.
42
7. Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides user
interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services.
Specific services
 Network virtual terminal--A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal, and it allows a
user to log on to a remote host.

 File transfer, access, and management--allows a user to access files in a remote host (to make changes or read
data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer, to manage or control files in a
remote computer locally.

 Mail services---his application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding & storage.

 Directory services---This application provides distributed database sources and access for global information
about various objects and services.

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Communication key protocol issues
• Message content (application layer)
------Data content
------Command content
• Message delivery
----Addressing (data link, network and transport layers)
----Across a single link(data link)
----Host-to-host (network)
----Process-to-process (transport)
----Order preservation (transport)
• Message transmission
---Coordination (datalink & physical)-- error detection, clock synchronization
---Channel organization (datalink & physical)—channel sharing
• Media (physical layer)-parallel/serial, bit encoding
THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
• The TCP/IP protocol architecture is a result of protocol research and development conducted
on the experimental packet-switched network, ARPANET, funded by the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and is generally referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model.
• Therefore, the layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application.
• TCP/IP was split into two separate protocols: TCP, which handles the data transmission and
reliability aspects, and IP, which handles the routing and addressing aspects.
• Together, they form the TCP/IP protocol suite, which is the basis of the internet.
• It consists of four layers: the application layer, the transport layer, the internet layer, and the
network access layer.
• Each layer performs specific functions and interacts with the adjacent layers.
• Some time it is called as DoD suite.
45
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE/DoD/Internet model

 However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say

that the host-to-network layer is equivalent to the
combination of the physical and data link layers.

 The internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and

the application layer is roughly doing the job of the
session, presentation, and application layers and transport
layer a s it is in the OSI.

46
OSI and TCP/IP layers for comparison

Which layer is not

available in the
TCP/IP model?
Why it is like that?
1. Host-to-Network Layer:
• the network access layer is where the physical and data link protocols, such as Ethernet and
Wi-Fi, connect the hosts to the network media.
• The TCP/IP reference model does not really say much about what happens here, except to
point out that the host has to connect to the network using some protocol so it can send IP
packets to it.
2. Internet Layer:
• The internet layer is where the IP protocol routes the packets across different networks.
• Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have they travel independently
to the destination (potentially on a different network).
• They may even arrive in a different order than they were sent, in which case it is the job of
higher layers (Transport) to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired.
• The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol).
• The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go.
• Packet routing is clearly the major issue here, as is avoiding congestion.
48
3. The Transport Layer:
• The transport layer is where the TCP or UDP protocols ensure reliable or unreliable data transmission,
respectively.
• The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called the transport layer.
• It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation, just
as in the OSI transport layer.
• Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here. The first one, TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol), is a reliable, connection oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating on one
machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the internet.
• It fragments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes each one on to the internet
layer. At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received messages into the output
stream (Sequence numbering).
• TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a slow receiver with more
messages than it can handle.
• The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable, connectionless
protocol for applications that do not want TCP's sequencing or flow control.
• It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-reply queries and applications in which
prompt delivery is more important than accurate delivery, such as transmitting speech or video.
49
4. The Application Layer:
• The application layer is where the user applications, such as web browsers and email clients, communicate with
each other.
• The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers.
• On top of the transport layer is the application layer. It contains all the higher-level protocols.
• The early ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP).
• The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one machine to log onto a distant machine and work there (remote
login protocol).
• The file transfer protocol provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to another.

• Electronic mail was originally just a kind of file transfer, but later a specialized protocol (SMTP) was developed for it.
• Many other protocols have been added to these over the years: the Domain Name System (DNS) for mapping host
names onto their network addresses, NNTP, the protocol for moving USENET news articles around, and HTTP, the
protocol for fetching pages on the World Wide Web, and many others.
• Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models: -The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much operations in
common, both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols, and the functionality of the layers is
almost similar.
• For example, in both models the layers up through and including the transport layer are
there to provide an end-to-end, network-independent transport service to processes
wishing to communicate. 50
• Again in both models, the layers above transport are application-oriented users of the
transport service.
• Despite these fundamental similarities, the two models also have many differences. Three
concepts are central to the OSI model:
1. Services.
2. Interfaces.
3. Protocols.
• The biggest contribution of the OSI model is to make the distinction between these three
concepts explicit.
• Each layer performs some services for the layer above it. The service definition tells what the
layer does, not how entities above it access it or how the layer works. It defines the layer's
semantics.
• A layer's interface tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what the parameters
are and what results to expect.
• Finally, the peer protocols used in a layer are the layer's own business. It can use any protocols
it wants to, as long as it gets the job.

51
SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES
• Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital signals.
• A line code is the code used for data transmission of a digital signal over a transmission line.
• At the sender side digital data are encoded into a digital signal and at the receiver side the digital data
are recreated by decoding the digital signal.
• We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical images, audio, or video, are stored in
computer memory as sequences of bits.
• Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.
• At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; at the receiver, the digital data are recovered
by decoding the digital signal.
• For digital signaling, a data source g(t), which may be either digital or analog, is encoded into a digital
signal x(t). The actual form of x(t) depends on the encoding technique and is chosen to optimize use of
the transmission medium. For example, the encoding may be chosen to utilize bandwidth or to
minimize errors.

52
SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES
• Signal encoding is used in communications to improve the efficiency and reliability of transmitting
information.
• The reasons of using signal encoding in communications include:
1. Noise reduction: Signal encoding can be used to reduce the effect of noise on the transmitted
signal, making the information easier to recover at the receiver.
2. Bandwidth efficiency: By encoding the signal, it's possible to represent the information more
compactly, which can allow more data to be transmitted in the same bandwidth.
3. Error correction: Signal encoding can include error-correction codes that can detect and correct
errors that occur during transmission, increasing the reliability of the transmission.
4. Interference reduction: Signal encoding techniques can be used to reduce the likelihood of
interference between different signals transmitted at the same time.
5. Power efficiency: Encoding techniques can be used to optimize the signal power, which can
extend battery life in wireless devices.
6. Security: Encryption can be used for signal encoding, which makes it hard for unauthorized
people to intercept and read the signal.
In summary, signal encoding is used to improve the efficiency, reliability, and security of
communications by reducing the impact of noise, increasing the information content of the signal,
53
54
Line Coding Schemes

We can roughly divide line coding schemes into five categories:

In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive, zero, and negative.

55
• Unipolar scheme –all the signal levels are on the same sides of the axis.
• Non return to zero (NRZ) – It is unipolar line coding scheme in which positive voltage defines
bit 1 and the zero voltage defines bit 0. Signal does not return to zero at the middle of the bit
thus it is called NRZ.
• For example: Data =10110.

• Polar schemes – In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the axis.
• NRZ-L and NRZ-I – These are somewhat similar to unipolar NRZ scheme but here we use two
levels of amplitude (voltages). Example: Data = 01001110.

56
• Biphase (Manchester and Differential Manchester ) – Manchester encoding is
somewhat combination of the RZ (transition at the middle of the bit) and NRZ-L
schemes. The duration of the bit is divided into two halves.
• The voltage remains at one level during the first half and moves to the other level in
the second half.
• The transition at the middle of the bit provides synchronization. Example: Data =
010011.

• The Manchester scheme overcomes several problems associated with NRZ-L, and
differential Manchester overcomes several problems associated with NRZ-I.
biphase schemes have several advantages in general:
• Synchronization
• No dc component
• No long sequences of zero-level line signals
• No reduction in data rate 57
• Bipolar schemes – In this scheme there are three voltage levels positive, negative, and zero.
• The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the voltage level for the other element
alternates between positive and negative.
• Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) – A neutral zero voltage represents binary 0. Binary 1’s are
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
• Pseudoternary – Bit 1 is encoded as a zero voltage and the bit 0 is encoded as alternating
positive and negative voltages i.e., opposite of AMI scheme. Example: Data = 010010.

58
Scrambling Techniques
• Scrambling is a digital encoding technique that is used in modern data communication schemes
and can principally provide aid in retrieving information from received data and enhancing
synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver.
• Examples
• Bipolar with 8-zeros substitution (B8ZS)--A code in which eight consecutive zeros are replaced
with the sequence 000+-0-+ if the preceding pulse was + and with the sequence 000-+0+- of the
preceding pulse was -, where + represents a positive pulse, – represents a negative pulse, and 0
represents no pulse.
• High-Density bipolar-3 zeros (HDB3) code----The HDB3 code is a bipolar signaling technique (i.e.
relies on the transmission of both positive and negative pulses). It is based on Alternate Mark
Inversion (AMI), but extends this by inserting violation codes whenever there is a run of 4 or more
0's.
• Two-binary, one-quaternary (2B1Q)--Two Binary One Quaternary is a Physical Layer line coding
technique used in ISDN to encode four binary bits into a single transmission symbol.
• 8B6T --- 8-bits (1 byte) of binary data are encoded to 6-bits of ternary digital signal.
• 4D-PAM5--4D-PAM5 (four-dimensional five-level pulse amplitude modulation) are the encoding
and modulation techniques used in Gigabit Ethernet (GbE). 59
NRZ-L
• Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
• Voltage constant during bit interval
• no transition I.e. no return to zero voltage
• e.g. Absence of voltage for zero, constant positive voltage for one
• More often, negative voltage for one value and positive for the other
Pseudoternary
• One represented by absence of line signal
• Zero represented by alternating positive and negative
• No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI
NRZ (Non-return to Zero) – It is a type of Unipolar scheme in which the
bit 0 gets defined by the zero voltage and the bit 1 gets defined by the
positive voltage. The signal here never returns to zero while in the
middle of a bit. Hence, it is known as NRZ.
60
• If there is continuous string of ‘0’s or ‘1’s in NRZ code it is very difficult to recover the clock
signal.
• Polarity of signals changes only when incoming signal changes from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1.
• Hence Return to Zero code (RZ) was implemented means return to zero at the middle of the
bit.
• Clock can be extracted from the Return to Zero code by the receiver using lot of transitions
• RZ signals are the combination of “NRZ-L Signal + Clock Signal”
• Bipolar-AMI
• zero represented by no line signal
• one represented by positive or negative pulse
• one pulses alternate in polarity
• No loss of sync if a long string of ones (zeros still a problem)
• No net dc component
• Lower bandwidth
• Easy error detection

61
• Manchester
• Transition in middle of each bit period
• Transition serves as clock and data
• Low to high represents one
• High to low represents zero
• Used by IEEE 802.3(Ethernet) standard for baseband coaxial cable
and twisted-pair CSMA/CD bus LANs
• Differential Manchester
• Mid-bit transition is clocking only
• Transition at start of a bit period represents zero
• No transition at start of a bit period represents one
• Note: this is a differential encoding scheme
• Used by IEEE 802.5 token ring LAN, using shielded twisted pair

62
63
64
65
B8ZS and HDB3-----both works based on bipolar AMI
Assignment 1 (10%)
1. Encode the bit-pattern 10000000001110000101 using the following digital encoding schemes.
A. NRZ-L
B. Manchester
C. Differential Manchester
D. HDB3
E. AMI

2. Which is better model for communication, OSI model or TCP/IP Model? Why? Justify?

3. Why we need two addresses to send a packet from one network to another network?

4. What is the difference between reliable versus unreliable communication? Give examples?

67
Quiz (5%)
1. For the bit stream 0101110, sketch the waveforms for AMI, Manchester, and
Differential Manchester.

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Switching and Multiplexing

• Reading Assignment for Switching and Multiplexing