Ethiopian Institute of Technology – Mekelle

Department of textile and garment engineering

Apparel Quality management

April 2024
 CHAPTER - SIX
Quality improvement tools
 What are Quality improvement tools?

 Once the basic problem-solving or quality improvement process is understood, the

addition of quality tools can make the process proceed more quickly and
systematically.
 According to Ishikawa (a quality expert from Japan), 95% of quality-related
problems can be resolved with basic tools.
 The key to successful problem resolution is the ability to identify the problem, use
the appropriate tools based on the nature of the problem, and communicate the
solution quickly to others.
 tools can be used by any professional to ease the quality improvement process.
Cont.
 flow chart

 check sheets

 Pareto diagrams

 cause and effect diagrams,

 histograms

 scatter diagrams

 control charts

 six sigma

 process capability
 Flow chart
 A flow chart is a pictorial representation showing all of the steps of a
process.
 Check Sheet
A check sheet is a simple document that
is used for collecting data in real time
and at the location where data is
generated.

Its main purposes are:

To make data-gathering easy
To arrange data automatically so
that they can be used easily later
on.
 Pareto analysis

 A graphical tool for ranking causes from most significant to least

significant so that priorities for process improvement can be established.
 It indicates which causes to tackle first by showing the proportion that
each cause contributes to the total problem.
 The Pareto diagram is based on the 80/20 principle, which states that
80% of problems are created by 20% of causes.

Dr. Juran coined the phrases

“vital few and trivial many”

 Cont.

Example:

The following table shows the different types of defect and the total
number of items that are occurred on garment products in MAA
Garment.

Use the Pareto analysis to determine the vital few cause, which
results the majority of the problem.
Cont.
Number of defects observed

Type of Defect Number of Defects

Skip stitch 10

Shed variation 42

Oil stain 6

Broken stitch 104

Loose stitch 4

Seam pucker 20

Hole 14

Total 200
Cont.
Data Sheet for Pareto Diagram

Number of Cumulative Percentage of Cumulative

Type of Defects Defects Total overall Total (%) Percentage (%)
Broken stitch 104 104 52 52
Shed variation 42 146 21 73
Seam pucker 20 166 10 83
Hole 14 180 7 90
Skip stitch 10 190 5 95
Oil stain 6 196 3 98
Loose stitch 4 200 2 100
Total 200 - 100 -
Cont.

Pareto diagram
Pareto Chart of Type of Defect
200 100

Number of Defects
80
150

Percent
60
100
40

50
20

0 0
Type of Defect

Number of Defects 104 42 20 14 10 6 4

Percent 52.0 21.0 10.0 7.0 5.0 3.0 2.0
Cum % 52.0 73.0 83.0 90.0 95.0 98.0 100.0
 Cause and Effect Diagram

 It is a tool that helps identify, sort, and display possible causes of a specific
problem or quality characteristic.
 The diagram graphically clarifies the relationship between a given
outcome and all the factors that influence the outcome.
 Commonly called “fishbone diagram” because of its appearance.

 Cause-and-effect diagrams are used to identify and systematically list

various causes that can be attributed to a problem (or an effect).
 Cont.

 The major purpose of this diagram

is to act as a first step in problem-
solving by creating a list of possible
causes.
 Each cause for quality problems is
a source of variation.
 Cont.

 Causes are usually grouped into major categories to identify these sources of
variation.
 The categories typically include:
 People (Man): anyone involved in the process.
 Methods: how the process is performed.
 Machines: any equipment, computers, tools, etc. required
 Materials: raw materials, parts, etc. used to produce the final product.
Cont.

 Measurements: data generated from the process that is used to evaluate its quality.
 Environment: the conditions, such as location, time, temperature, and culture in
which the process operates.
 Cont.
example:
 Histogram
 Histogram is a representation of the frequency (count) distribution of
data among different groups of samples or populations consisting of
vertical bars of different heights and each bar represents a different
group of data.

It helps in summarizing data that has been collected and represents
graphical data frequency distribution in bar form to highlight areas of
needed attention.
 example
The following table gives the
lifetime of 400 neon lamps. Draw
the histogram for the below data.
Histogram diagram
 Scatter diagrams

 Scatter diagrams are used to study the possible relationship between one
variable and another. This can be used to test the possible cause-and-
effect relationship.
 It does not prove that one variable causes the other, but it does make it
clear whether a relationship exists between them and determines the
strength of the relationship.
 Cont.
Example: Scatterplot of number of defect vs machine speed/rpm
60
In the knitting process if the speed
of the knitting machine increases the 55

n u m b er o f d efec t
number of defects is high in the
50
fabric.

45

40
20 22 24 26 28 30 32
machine speed/rpm
 Process variation
 Variation exists in all processes.

 The variation concept is a law of nature in that no two

natural items in any category are the same.
The variation may be quite large and easily noticeable.

The variation may be very small. Items may be identical;

however, precision instruments will show differences.
The ability to measure variation is necessary before it can
be controlled.
 Categories of Variation

1. Within-piece variation - One portion of the surface is rougher than

another portion.

2. Apiece-to-piece variation - among pieces produced at the same time.

3. Time-to-time variation - Service given early would be different from

that given later in the day.
Sources of Variation in Production Processes
 Causes of variation
 Common cause: takes place as chance or in a random
fashion as a result of the cumulative effect of several
minor causes that cannot be identified. These causes are
inherent in every type of production.
 Is naturally occurring variation inherent in all
processes.
 Is unavoidable and inevitably occurs in a process.
 Its effect is minute and is tolerable
 They are problems inherent in the manufacturing
system, such as high temperature or excessive humidity.
 Cont.
 Assignable cause: refers to those problems in the quality of

the products that can be assigned or attributed to any

particular causes like defective materials, defective labor, etc.
 Typically caused by some problem or extraordinary occurrence in
the system.
 Are local, sporadic problems such as the failure of a particular
machine or a mistakenly recorded measurement.
 Causing factors can be identified and possibly managed (e.g.
Untrained worker, faulty machine, out-of-calibrated instrument,
etc.)
 Control chart
 A control chart is a graph that shows whether a sample of data falls within
the common or normal range of variation.
 A control chart has upper and lower control limits that separate common
from assignable causes of variation. The common range of variation is
defined by the use of these control chart limits.
 We say that a process is out of control when a plot of data reveals that one
or more samples fall outside the control limits.
Cont.

Fig: Control chart example

 Types of Control charts
 A control chart for variables is used to monitor
characteristics that can be measured and have a
continuous of values, such as height, weight, or
volume.
 A control chart for attributes, on the other hand, is
used to monitor characteristics that have discrete
values and can be counted. Often they can be evaluated
with a simple yes or no decision.
Cont.
Cont.
 Use of Control charts
uses to monitor, control and improve process performance over time
by studying variation and its source.
 Monitor how a process changes over time

 reveal the stability or variability in a process.

 Distinguish random and assignable variations.

 Control charts for variables
 Control charts for variables enable the monitoring of the natural variability
occurring in a process where the data is provided in measurable units rather
than counted ones.
The charts will then be used to reduce this variability around the nominal
value.
Charts are based on variability due to common causes and are used to
determine the presence of special causes
Cont.

The X chart plots sample means. It is a measure of between sample

variations and is used to assess the centering and long-term variation of the
process.
The range chart and S chart measure the in-sample variation and assess the
short-term variation of the process.
Cont.

The centerline for the X-bar chart is the X-double bar. The upper control limit
and lower control limit are calculated using the following formulas;

The centerline for the range chart is. . . the UCL and LCL are calculated by:
Cont.

 draw the Xbar-R chart using the following data

 Solution
X- chart
Cont.
Cont.
 X and S control charts

While X-bar and R charts are widely used, it is occasionally desirable to

estimate the process standard deviation directly instead of indirectly

through the use of the range R. This leads to control charts for X-bar and S,
where S is the sample standard deviation.
 The 3-sigma limits for the S chart with the standards given are as follows
S chart X chart
 cont.
 control limits of X bar-S chart with out given standards
S chart X chart
 Example
In a packing organization monitoring Measured values
sample 1 2 3 4
the performance of a packing 1 34 35 35 34
2 37 35 25 32
machine, each container should 3 36 35 35 34

weigh 35 lb. during the Measure 4 33 36 35 35

5 36 33 34 35

phase, In the Analyze phase 12 sets 6 33 36 35 35

7 36 36 35 33
of container weights with a subgroup 8 33 35 35 34
9 36 36 35 33
size of 4. 10 34 36 36 34
11 37 35 33 35
12 34 35 35 36
 Cont.
S chart X chart
Control Charts for Moving Averages and Ranges(X-MR)
 Many organizations are involved in continuous processes, such as
manufacturing steel, aluminum, paint, oil, or chemicals. In such cases, it is
recognized that the (Xbar, R) charts are inappropriate. So, in continuous
processes, extensive use is made of moving average charts.
 X chart MR chart
 Example
illustrates the control chart for individual observations. A new process was
studied to monitor the flow rate. The first 10 batches resulted in the below
Batch Flowrate
table. Number x
1 49.6
2 47.6
3 49.9
4 51.3
5 47.8
6 51.2
7 52.6
8 52.4
9 53.6
10 52.1
Cont.
 Control Charts for Attributes

 Many quality characteristics cannot be conveniently represented

numerically.
 In such cases, each item inspected is classified as either conforming
or nonconforming to the specifications on that quality characteristic.
 Quality characteristics of this type are called attributes.
 Types of attribute control Charts
p charts
 This chart shows the fraction of nonconforming or defective product produced
by a manufacturing process.
 It is also called the control chart for fraction nonconforming.
np charts
 This chart shows the number of nonconforming. Almost the same as the p
chart.
c charts
 This shows the number of defects or nonconformities produced by a
manufacturing process.
u charts
 This chart shows the nonconformities per unit produced by a manufacturing
process.
 Control charts for nonconforming
P-Chart (variable sample size)
In this chart, we plot the percent of defectives (per batch, per day, per
machine, etc.). However, the control limits in this chart are not based on the
distribution of rate events but rather on the binomial distribution (of
proportions).
 The control limits where P-known
 Cont.
When P is unknow
where
 Example Sample Quantity
number Inspected Rejected

Fifteen samples with different sample 1 50 4

sizes are chosen from a plastic 2 50 7

3 50 5
injection molding machine producing 4 125 12
5 100 8
small containers. The number of
6 75 4
nonconforming containers for each 7 50 13
8 50 2
sample is shown in the table below. 9 125 16
10 125 12
Construct the appropriate control chart
11 100 14
and comment whether the process is in 12 100 9
13 75 5
control or not. 14 75 14
Cont.
 np –chart (constant sample size)
 The number of defective chart (np -chart) is an alternative chart that may
be substituted for the P-chart.
 In the case of the np-chart, the sample size must be constant.

 the np-chart allows the actual number of defective units to be plotted

directly. This eliminates the need for one calculation (p), thereby decreasing
the probability of an error. The np- chart also is somewhat easier for
production operators to understand.
 Cont.
Control limits for the np-chart are calculated as follows
 Example Shipment. Bruised Shipment. Bruised
no. peaches no. peaches
The data in the Table below were 1 20 16 23

2 28 17 27

obtained by opening randomly selected 3 24 18 28

4 21 19 31

crates from each shipment and 5 32 20 27

6 33 21 30
counting the number of bruised 7 31 22 23

peaches. There are 250 peaches per 8 29 23 23

9 30 24 27

crate (constant n is required for np 10 34 25 35

11 32 26 29

charts). 12 24 27 23

13 29 28 23

14 27 29 30

15 37 30 28
Cont.
Control charts for nonconformities
C - chart (constant sample size)for the number of non-conformities

with a given standard value of C

When no standard given

 Sample number Number of defects
Example
1 3
The following table shows the number 2 5
3 8
of imperfections contained in a sample
4 4
of fifteen pieces of cloth taken from 5 3
6 5
different rolls. Draw a C-chart using 7 7
8 5
these data and state whether the
9 2
process is in a state of statistical 10 4
11 6
control. 12 3
13 5
14 7
15 4
Cont.
 Cont.
 U-Chart (variable sample size) for the number of nonconformities per unit

Where

Ci, is the number of nonconformities in the sample and ni is the sample size of
the ith sample
Example
Number of
day Subgroup size defects
A motorbike manufacturer collected
1 50 2
the number of defects identified in the
2 60 3
final inspection stage for 10 days. 3 70 8

Based on the given data, the 4 40 1

5 50 1
supervisor wants to know the quality
6 60 4
level using a control chart for defects
7 50 1
per motorbike and determine the 8 60 4

process in statistical control. 9 70 5

10 40 1
Cont.
 Cont.
If the Control charts have the following things the process is out of
control

• Trend: 6 consecutively increasing or 6 consecutively decreasing points

• Shift in the Mean: 8 consecutive points on the same side of the Center
Line

• Cycle:14 consecutive points alternating up and down

 Process capability
 Process capability refers to the performance of the process when it is
operating in control.
 Process capability implies ,how capable your process to meet the target
value and stay within specification limits.
Cont.

 Process capability –the ability of the process to meet the design

specification for a service or product.

Nominal value
A target for design specifications.
Tolerance
an allowance above or below the nominal value
 Process control vs process capability
 Process control refers to the  process capability refers to the
evaluation of process stability over evaluation of how well a process
time. meets specifications.
Cont.
Cont.
Cont..
 Process Potential (Cp) is the ratio of specification width and process
width and is given as

CP= =
If Cp>1.00, the process is capable of meeting the specifications

if Cp<1.00 ,the process is not capable of meeting the specifications

Cp=1.33 capable process.

In case of 6sigma quality ,Cp=2

larger the value of cp, the better the quality.

 Cont.

Process Capability index (Cpk)

Min [(USL– Process Mean ) / 3𝜎 , (Process Mean – LSL) / 3𝜎]

The CP measure determines the capability of the process to produce output

products within the required specifications.

 The Cpk, as per the Cp measure, determines the capability of a process to produce

the required product to specification,

but the Cpk also indicates how well-centered the process is between the

specification limits
 Cont.
the Cp values does not changes as the process center changes.

Cp= cpk ,when the process is centered

Cpk is always equal to or less then cp,i.e cpk CP

Cpk >1.00 ,indicates the process conforms to specifications.

Cpk < 1.00 ,indicates the process does not conforms to specifications.

Cp < 1.00indicates that the process is not capable.

Cpk < 0 i.e. negative value of cpk indicates that the average is outside the
specifications
Cont.
Example
 Six sigma
What is Six Sigma?

A Vision and Philosophical commitment to

our consumers to offer the highest quality,
lowest cost products
 A Metric that demonstrates quality levels at
99.9997% performance for products and
processes.
 A practical application of statistical Tools and
Methods to help us measure, analyze,
improve, and control our process
 Six Sigma is
A performance goal, representing 3.4 defects for every million opportunities to make
one.
A series of tools and methods used to improve or design products, processes, and/or
services.
A statistical measure indicating the number of standard deviations within customer
expectations.
A disciplined, fact-based approach to managing a business and its processes.

A means to promote greater awareness of customer needs, performance measurement,

and business improvement
Cont.
Cont.
 Sigma is the Greek letter representing the standard deviation of a
population of data.
Managing Up the Sigma Scale
 Benefits of Six Sigma

 Generates sustained success

 Sets performance goal for everyone

 Enhances value for customers

Accelerates rate of improvement

 Promotes learning across boundaries

 Executes strategic change

DMAIC – The Improvement Methodology

Objectives
 DEFINE the opportunity
 MEASURE current performance
 ANALYZE the root causes of problems
 IMPROVE the process to eliminate root causes
 CONTROL the process to sustain the gains.