Human •EDUCATION AND

DEVELOPMENT

Capital
Theory •
 •Pro-Human Capital Theory: "Investing in education and skills
development is the most effective way to enhance individual
productivity and economic growth, as suggested by human
capital theory."
•Critical of Human Capital Theory: "Human capital theory
overly simplifies the relationship between education and
economic success, failing to account for structural inequalities
and access to opportunities."
•Economic angle: "Human capital theory justifies public

Pre- spending on education as an investment with high returns,

benefiting both individuals and society."
•Social Justice angle: "Relying on human capital theory

Lecture perpetuates inequality by placing the responsibility for economic

success on individuals, while ignoring societal and systemic
barriers."

Debate
•Alternate View on Value: "Human capital theory reduces
education to an economic tool, undermining the intrinsic value of
knowledge and personal development."

HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY

 Pre-Lecture Debate

EDUCATION IS AN INVESTMENT FOR

HUMAN CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT

•Economic Growth Perspective: "Education is the most valuable investment for human
capital development, as it directly contributes to economic growth by creating a more skilled
and productive workforce."
•Social Mobility Perspective: "Investing in education promotes social mobility, empowering
individuals from all backgrounds to develop their human capital and break the cycle of
poverty."
•Public vs. Private Responsibility: "Education as an investment in human capital should
primarily be a public responsibility, as it benefits society as a whole and reduces inequalities
in access to opportunities."
•Skills Mismatch Perspective: "Despite education being an investment in human capital,
there is a growing mismatch between educational outcomes and labor market demands,
suggesting the need for better alignment between curricula and skills needed."
•Lifelong Learning Perspective: "Viewing education as a lifelong investment in human
capital development encourages continuous skill acquisition, adaptability, and personal
growth in an ever-evolving economy."
•Intrinsic vs. Instrumental Value of Education: "While education is indeed an investment
in human capital development, its true value lies beyond economic gain, fostering critical
thinking, citizenship, and personal fulfillment."
 1. The idea
2. The background
3. The theory
4. Education as investment in
Contents human capital
5. Individual returns of the
investment in education
6. Criticism of the human capital
theory
The
Background
The background
• Modernization: the process by which
agrarian societies are transformed into
industrial ones

• Consequences of modernization to labor:

• The nature of labor has changed –
people “work smarter” due to
 Technological innovations
 A more efficient use of knowledge
 The role of knowledge has become
more important
 A higher proportion of white-collar
jobs (Drucker)
• Education has become necessary from
being a luxury
 The background

• Consequences of modernization to labor:

Women have entered the labor market due to
 Unequal sex ratio – lack of males after the World Wars
 Changes in the types and structure of jobs
 Reduced fertility – or is this the result of female labor?
 Financial reasons – or is female labor a covert salary cut?

More working women > it is more difficult to find a job for the less
educated (of both sexes)
The background

• Consequences of modernization to labor:

Job Displacement:
Increased Skill Shift: Higher
Traditional jobs in
Automation: Machines demand for technical,
manufacturing and
replace manual jobs, digital, and problem-
agriculture decline,
reducing demand for solving skills; lifelong
while new jobs in
low-skilled labor and learning becomes
technology and
reshaping job markets. essential.
services emerge.

Income Polarization: Work Flexibility & Work-Life Imbalance:

Widening wage gap as Gig Economy: Growth Increased connectivity
high-skilled jobs offer in freelance and can blur boundaries,
higher pay, while low- contract work, leading to burnout and
skilled workers face impacting job security mental health
stagnation. and benefits. concerns.

Global Labor
Competition:
Outsourcing and
offshoring increase,
intensifying
competition and
affecting wage levels.
Definition of human capital

Thus the definition of human

capital is referred to as “the
knowledge, skills, competencies,
and attributes embodied in
individuals that facilitate the
creation of personal, social and
economic well-being”
(Organization for Economic Co-
Operation and Development or
OECD, 2001: 18).
Definition of human capital

Human Capital is a measure of the skills, education, capacity

and attributes of labour which influence their productive
capacity and earning potential.

According to the OECD - the knowledge, skills, competencies

and other attributes embodied in individuals or groups of
individuals acquired during their life and used to produce
goods, services or ideas in market circumstances”.

2 TYPE: individual human capital and human capital of the

economy
 Definition of human capital

• Human capital refers to the production factors, coming from

human beings, we use to create goods and services.

• Capital refers to things made by humans that make other things,

like machinery and equipment.

• Human capital may refer to investments made into human beings

to improve production, like education, skills, experience, health
care etc.
 Definition of human capital

Human capital is the value of people’s skills, knowledge, and

abilities that help them do their jobs well and contribute to the
economy. It’s like the “tools” people carry within themselves,
such as education, experience, and even good health, which
make them productive.

For example, a teacher’s human capital includes their

education, experience, and teaching skills, which help students
learn and succeed. By investing in training, the teacher can
improve these skills, making them more effective and valuable
in their job. Similarly, a healthy and skilled workforce boosts the
success of businesses and the overall economy.
 Definition of human capital

• The concept of human capital is primarily related to the

economic behaviour of individuals, especially in the way
in which their accumulated knowledge and skills boost
their productivity and income.
 Definition of human capital

Definition of Human Capital: Human capital

refers to the knowledge, skills, abilities, and
other attributes that individuals possess, which
make them productive and valuable contributors
to the economy.

Significance of Human Capital: Human capital

is a vital factor in economic growth, productivity,
and social development.

Education as the Foundation: Education is a

fundamental investment in human capital,
shaping individuals' abilities and shaping their
potential.
The theory

The theory of human capital

Developed by economists
is an economic and
like Gary Becker and Jacob
sociological concept that
Mincer, the theory of
views education, training,
human capital posits that
and other forms of skill
individuals and societies
development as
can enhance their economic
investments in individual
and social outcomes by
and societal well-being and
investing in human capital.
productivity.
The theory

Human Capital Theory is an economic concept that suggests

investing in people’s education, skills, and knowledge
leads to increased productivity and economic growth. It treats
individuals' abilities, knowledge, and experience as valuable
resources (capital) that contribute to the economy, much like
physical assets (e.g., machinery or buildings).
 Investment in Education and
Training: The theory emphasizes
The Key Components of the that individuals make investments
in their human capital through

Theory education, training, and skill

acquisition. These investments
are seen as costly in terms of
time, effort, and financial
resources

Human Capital as an Asset: Human capital refers to the stock

of knowledge, skills, and abilities that individuals possess. It is
viewed as an asset, similar to physical capital (machinery,
infrastructure) in the production process.

Accumulation of Human Capital: Through education and

training, individuals accumulate human capital. This
accumulation can be measured in terms of increased
knowledge, improved skills, and enhanced productivity.
 Lifecycle Perspective: The theory
considers that human capital

The Key Components of the development is a lifelong process. It

starts in early childhood and continues
throughout one's working life. Lifelong
Theory learning and continuous skill
development are essential components
of this theory.

Economic Returns: Human capital theory suggests that

individuals who invest in their education and skills development
are likely to receive higher economic returns in the form of
increased income and earnings. The idea is that more educated
and skilled individuals are more productive and valuable in the
labour market.
 Role of Government and Policy: Governments

The Key Components of the and policymakers play a crucial role in human
capital development. They are responsible for
creating an environment that fosters access to

Theory education, implements policies that support skill

development, and addresses barriers to education,
such as affordability and quality.

Social and Economic Benefits: Beyond individual economic

returns, the theory highlights the broader social and economic
benefits of human capital. A more educated and skilled
population is associated with higher economic growth, reduced
unemployment, and lower levels of poverty. It can also lead to
reduced inequality and improved overall well-being.
 The Key Components of the Non-Market Benefits: In addition to economic
benefits, human capital development can also
lead to non-market benefits, including

Theory improved health, increased civic engagement,

and greater social cohesion.

Quality of Education: The theory acknowledges that the

quality of education and the relevance of skills acquired are
essential. Effective education systems and training programs are
crucial for maximizing the benefits of human capital
development.

Measurement and Assessment: Economists have developed

various ways to measure human capital, including years of
education, standardized test scores, and occupational skills.
These measures help assess the value of human capital at the
individual and societal levels.
 The Key Components of the Theory

Investment in Education and Training: The theory argues

that by investing in education and skills development,
individuals can increase their productivity and, as a result, their
earnings.
•Example: A worker who receives advanced training or a college
degree is likely to be more productive and earn a higher salary
compared to someone with less education.
Economic Growth: Educated and skilled individuals contribute
more effectively to the economy, leading to overall economic
growth. Countries with higher investments in education often
see higher rates of development.
•Example: Countries like South Korea have heavily invested in
education, which has helped them transition into high-tech
economies with rapid growth.
 The Key Components of the Theory

Skills and Knowledge as Capital: Similar to how businesses invest in

machinery to improve production, societies and individuals invest in
human capital to improve economic performance. The theory treats
skills and knowledge as a form of capital that can be grown or
depreciate over time.
•Example: Continuous learning and skill development help maintain or
increase human capital, while neglecting education or skill development
can lead to the depreciation of human capital.
Higher Income and Social Mobility: The theory posits that
individuals with more education and skills are likely to earn more and
have better job opportunities, leading to upward social mobility.
•Example: A person with a professional degree, like a doctor or
engineer, generally earns more and has greater job security than
someone without specialized skills.
 The Key Components of the
Theory

Public Policy and Investment:

Governments use this theory to
Example: Many countries
justify policies that invest in
provide free or subsidized
education, training, and health
education as part of their
services, as these investments
strategy to build human capital
help create a more productive
and foster long-term economic
workforce, which is beneficial
growth.
for national economic
competitiveness.
 The theory

Human Human Knowledge Direct Development

beings seen beings need and skills are investment in of human
as capital useful a form of education and capital
goods knowledge capital health results
and skills for in economic
their development
Related to the subsistence Improves the
theories of Adam quality and
Smith and Karl Marx productivity of the
labor force
Increases the
competitiveness of
national economies
in the global market
 The theory

Human beings seen as • Related to the theories of Adam Smith and Karl Marx
capital goods

Human beings need useful

knowledge and skills for
their subsistence

Knowledge and skills are a

form of capital

Direct investment in
education and health results
in economic development

• Improves the quality and productivity of the labor force

Development of human • Increases the competitiveness of national economies in the
capital global market
Concept of Human Beings as
Capital Goods Adam Smith’s View (Classical Economics)

Human capital theory considers Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations emphasized labor as a central force in
skills, knowledge, and abilities of creating wealth, advocating for the investment in education to enhance worker
individuals as “capital” that can productivity.
increase productivity, much like
machines or tools. He argued that skilled labor improves output quality and quantity, benefiting both
individuals and society, thus viewing human skills as a form of “productive capital.”
This perspective views people’s
capabilities as assets that can be Karl Marx’s Perspective (Critique of Capitalism)
invested in and improved
through education and training, Marx, in his analysis of capitalism, saw labor as a source of value but argued that
generating economic returns. capitalism treats workers as instruments for profit rather than individuals with
intrinsic value.

He highlighted the commodification of labor, where workers’ skills and effort are
seen as inputs to be exploited for capital gain, often leading to alienation and
exploitation.

For Marx, seeing humans as “capital” reflects capitalist priorities, where profit is
valued over worker welfare and dignity.

Investment in Human Capital as a Dual-edged Concept

•While Adam Smith supported investing in human capabilities for societal progress,
Marx critiqued how this can reduce people to mere “inputs” in the capitalist system.
•The concept reveals a dual nature: while beneficial for growth and innovation, it
can also perpetuate inequality and exploitation under certain economic structures.
Modern Implications
•Today, the idea of human capital reflects both Smith’s positive outlook on skill
development and Marx’s caution against reducing people to capital assets.
•It underscores debates on labor rights, fair wages, and the ethical treatment of
employees within profit-driven economies.
EDUCATION AND
OCCUPATION

•Link Between Education and Occupation

•There is a clear connection between education and
occupation.

•Prestige in Occupation
•Prestigious jobs typically require higher education.
•Nationality does not influence the prestige of a job.

•Educational Influence on Occupational Choice

•The amount and type of education are primary factors in
determining one’s occupational choice.

27
Transformation of work 2
8
Peter Drucker's Examination of Work
Changes
•Peter Drucker analyzed how work has
evolved and its impact on productivity.
•He concluded that people today “work
smarter” due to:
• Technological innovations
• Improved utilization of knowledge
• Shifts in the nature of work

Transition from Industrial to

Knowledge Economy
•There is a significant shift from an
industrial economy to one based on
knowledge.
•This transformation has resulted in a
higher percentage of white-collar jobs.
Transformation of labor Force

•Changes in Employment Percentage

•There have been significant changes in the percentage of
people employed.

•Primary Reasons for Increased Working Women

•Unequal Sex Ratio: Contributes to shifts in the types of work
available.
•Reduced Fertility Rates: Increases the need for dual incomes.
•Economic Necessity: A greater need for financial resources
drives more women into the workforce.
•Impact on Employment
•The rise in working women has led to challenges for less-
educated individuals of both sexes in finding employment.

2
9
Transformation of Labor Force

Disadvantages for Job Satisfaction

Certain Groups Outcomes
The lack of unskilled These changes have
labor opportunities has led to increased
put certain groups at a satisfaction in work for
disadvantage. some individuals.

3
0
Research has shown that changes in the labor market, such as the rise of skilled jobs and
the decline of unskilled positions, can significantly impact job satisfaction outcomes. Here
are some key findings from various studies:
3
Skill Utilization: Studies indicate that individuals who can use their skills and knowledge in their
1
jobs report higher levels of job satisfaction. For instance, a study published in the Journal of
Applied Psychology found that employees who feel their skills are well-utilized tend to be more
satisfied with their work.

Job Complexity: Research by Hackman and Oldham on the Job Characteristics Model suggests
that jobs that are more complex and offer variety lead to greater job satisfaction. When changes in
the workforce shift towards more complex, skill-based roles, employees often experience increased
satisfaction due to the challenging nature of their work.

Work Environment: A positive work environment and supportive management contribute

significantly to job satisfaction. Research published in the International Journal of Human Resource
Management found that organizational changes that improve the work environment (e.g., flexible
working conditions, employee recognition) lead to higher job satisfaction levels.

Job Security: Changes in labor markets can also affect perceptions of job security, which is
closely linked to job satisfaction. According to a study published in the European Journal of Work
and Organizational Psychology, employees with stable jobs feel more satisfied than those in
precarious employment situations.

Employee Engagement: Research indicates that engaged employees—those who are

emotionally invested in their work—report higher job satisfaction. For example, Gallup's studies
have shown a strong correlation between employee engagement initiatives and increased job
satisfaction.

Diversity and Inclusion: Changes that promote diversity and inclusion in the workplace have
been associated with higher job satisfaction. A study in the Journal of Business and Psychology
found that inclusive workplaces lead to greater employee morale and satisfaction.
 Transform of work and education
related to
• Industrial revolution changed
education from being a luxury
to being necessary
Transformati • Many nations put heavy
emphasis on higher education
on in for all
• Questions over whether school
Education matter
• Test scores show many with
lack functional abilities
• Allocate monies does not
guarantee better results

3
2
Does Education Pay?
Rationale Behind the Question
The question of whether education pays arises from several
factors:
•High Rewards in Skilled Blue-Collar Jobs - Many skilled
blue-collar jobs offer competitive salaries and benefits.
•Devaluation of College Degrees - The perceived value of a
college degree has diminished over time, leading to concerns
about its return on investment.
•Increase in College Graduates- The percentage of
individuals obtaining college degrees has risen substantially,
contributing to a more competitive job market.
•Impact of Education Inflation-The progress of disadvantaged
groups is often undermined by the inflation of educational
requirements, making it harder for them to achieve upward
mobility.
•Credentialing Necessity-While the quality of education may
not have improved significantly, the increasing demand for
formal credentials has made obtaining a degree more vital for
employment.
•Education and Lifelong Learning-The relationship between
education and lifelong learning underscores the evolving nature
of skills and qualifications needed in the workforce.

3
3
 Social Change: Development and Global
Inequality

KEY QUESTION IS, WHY MODERNIZATION: THE THEORIES OF

DOES SOCIAL CHANGE PROCESS BY WHICH MODERNIZATION ARE
OCCUR? WHAT AGRARIAN SOCIETIES THEORIES OF GLOBAL
STIMULATE OR RETARD ARE TRANSFORMED INEQUALITY
IT? INTO INDUSTRIAL ONES

3
4
Internal Sources of
Social Change
•1. Innovations
•New Technology: Innovations arise as a response to
technological changes, driving shifts in how society
operates.
•New Culture: The idea of progress influences
societal expectations and values, fostering cultural
evolution.
•New Social Structures: Changes in social structures,
including specialization and evolving gender roles,
contribute to social transformation.

•2. Conflict
•Socialmovements and intergroup tensions often act
as catalysts for change, highlighting disparities and
pushing for reforms.

•3. Growth
•Population growth, in particular, can drive
significant social changes, affecting resources,
services, and societal dynamics.
3
5
 ROLE OF EDUCATION
AS AN INVESTMENT IN
HUMAN CAPITAL DEVELOPMENT
EDUCATION AS INVESTMENT OF HUMAN
CAPITAL

Individuals require useful

1. Human Need for Knowledge
knowledge and skills to thrive in
and Skills
society.

Knowledge and skills can be

viewed as forms of capital that
2. Knowledge and Skills as Capital
contribute to personal and
economic growth.

Investing in education and health

3. Direct Investment in Education enables individuals to capitalize on
and Health better job opportunities and
improve their quality of life.

Our perspectives on education

reflect our values and beliefs
about human capital, emphasizing
4. Values and Beliefs
the importance of viewing
individuals as valuable assets in
society.
3
7
 EDUCATION AS INVESTMENT OF HUMAN CAPITAL

•1. Boosting National Economic Growth

•Education plays a crucial role in enhancing national economic growth
by equipping individuals with the skills and knowledge needed for
productive employment.
•2. Increasing Income for Low-Income Groups
•Educationhelps raise the income levels of impoverished groups,
promoting social mobility and reducing poverty.
•3. Support from the World Bank
•Since 1962, the World Bank has provided loans for educational
initiatives, recognizing the importance of education in fostering
economic development.
•4. Improving Standard of Living
•Investing
in education contributes to economic growth and leads to
improved standards of living for individuals and communities.
•5. Education for Social Development
•Education is essential for social development, as it enhances
individuals' abilities to participate in society and engage in civic
activities.
•6. Education as a Fundamental Component
•Educationis a basic component for developing a nation's social,
economic, and political landscape.
•7. Economic Value of Education
•Theeconomic value of education is significant, as it contributes to
personal earnings and overall national productivity.
38
 EDUCATION AS INVESTMENT OF
HUMAN CAPITAL

Education Human capital

development
Formal education Increased productivity
Informal learning skills development Innovation
Social Mobility
Reduce inequality

3
9
ROLE OF EDUCATION
IN HUMAN CAPITAL
DEVELOPMENT
Contribute to
personal social
Realizing
development
human potential
and reduce
social inequality
Increase the
productivity and
Developing a
creativity
high-quality
among formers
assessment
and facilitated
system
structural
transformation
Strengthening
Technological
lifelong learning
change and the
for skills
future of work
enhancement

Enhance better
Increase the
student
capacity and
outcomes and
mental
institutional
efficiency
excellence
Education as investment in human capital

Education is a basic
component of social,
1. Fundamental Role in economic, and political
Development development, laying the
groundwork for a
prosperous society.

Education holds significant

economic value, as it
2. Economic Value of enhances individuals' skills
Education and knowledge, leading to
better job opportunities and
higher incomes.

Education contributes to
economic growth, as
highlighted by economists
3. Contribution to Economic like Adam Smith (1776) and
Growth Wheeler (1980), who
emphasized its role in
improving productivity and
fostering innovation.
 Education as investment
in human capital

1. Investment in Education
Investing in education is essential for fostering
national economic growth (Marris, 1982).
Education offers a significantly higher return rate than
investments in physical capital, with most economic
growth stemming from investments in education
(Schultz, 1963).

2. Increasing Income for the Poor

Education plays a crucial role in increasing the income
levels of low-income individuals (Jamison and Lau,
1982).

3. Enhancing Labor Force Productivity

Education improves the skills and productivity of the
national labor force, contributing to overall economic
development (Denison, 1962; Schultz, 1961).
 Individual returns of the
investment in education

•1. Education as an Investment

•Education is not only an investment for individuals but also for their families.

•2. Impact of Qualifications on Labor Opportunities

An individual's qualifications significantly influence their job opportunities and career
choices.

•3. High-Prestige Jobs and Qualifications

• High-prestige jobs typically require advanced qualifications, making education
essential for accessing these positions.

•4. Higher Degrees and Income

• In most societies, attaining a higher degree generally leads to higher income levels.
Individual returns of the
investment in education

• 1. Education as an Investment
• Education is an investment for both
students and their families.
• 2. Variability of the Income Gap
• The income gap varies throughout an
individual's life cycle; it is not constant.
• 3. Age-Earning Profiles
• For example, in Thailand, age-earning
profiles illustrate how income levels
change with age and education,
highlighting the importance of
education in enhancing earning
potential over time.
Individual returns of the
investment in education

• BUT…
• 1. The Ability Factor
• Highly educated individuals often possess the skills,
self-discipline, and motivation necessary to achieve
higher salaries.

• 2. Correlation Between Education and Income

• The relationship between higher degrees and higher
income may be influenced by the same underlying
individual abilities, rather than education alone.
Individual returns of the investment in
education
• BUT…
• 1. Insufficient Returns
• In some cases, the returns on educational investment may be insufficient to justify the
costs.
• 2. High Rewards in Skilled Blue-Collar Jobs
• Many skilled blue-collar jobs provide high rewards, sometimes surpassing those of
college-educated positions.
• 3. Expansion Theory (Archer)
• According to Archer's expansion theory, as more individuals obtain degrees, the value of
those degrees may decline.
• 4. Devaluation of College Degrees
• The increasing percentage of college graduates has contributed to a deflation in the
perceived value of a college degree.
• 5. Education Inflation
• The progress of disadvantaged groups is often counteracted by education inflation,
making it harder to achieve upward mobility.
• 6. Credentialism Over Skills
• Society increasingly values credentials over actual knowledge and skills, which can
diminish the true benefits of education.
• 7. Education and Social Reproduction (Bourdieu)
• Education serves as a mechanism for social reproduction, reinforcing existing social
inequalities (Bourdieu).
 Criticism of the
human capital theory
Criticism of human capital
theory

• Investment or consumption?
It is not appropriate to regard expenditure for
education as an investment
Criticism of the human capital
theory

•1. Not an Automatic Process

•Investment in human capital does not yield benefits
automatically.
•2. Skills Mismatch
•There is often a discrepancy between labor market
demand and the skills possessed by new graduates,
leading to underemployment.
•3. Impact of Value Systems and Work Culture
•The dominant values and work culture in fields like
education and healthcare may diminish or counteract the
positive effects of investment in human capital.
•4. Importance of Quality Education
•The quality of education is crucial; it is not merely about
investment.
•5. Functional Abilities
•Testscores indicate that many students lack essential
functional abilities necessary for the workforce.
•6. No Guarantee of Success
•Simplyinvesting in education does not guarantee
improved outcomes or better results.
Criticism of the human capital theory

Many skilled blue-collar jobs offer high reward

Educational expansion theory (Archer, 1982)
Sometimes the • Deflation in value of college degrees
returns are • Percent of college graduates has
insufficient • increased substantially
• The progress of the disadvantaged
• offset by educational inflation
Everybody

Nobody

It is not the
knowledge and
skills of humans but Education is a channel of social reproduction (Bourdieu & Passeron,
credentialism in the 1990)
society what has
increased
Criticism of the human
capital theory

Overemphasis on Individual
Responsibility: Critics argue that
the theory places too much focus
on individuals and overlooks
structural factors like inequality,
access to education, or job market
conditions.

Mismatch in Skills and Job Markets:

Sometimes, individuals invest in
education, but the job market may
not offer opportunities that match
their skills, leading to
underemployment.
 ACCESS TO QUALITY OF
EDUCATION: EDUCATION:

Challeng
ADDRESSING ENSURING THE
DISPARITIES IN QUALITY OF
ACCESS TO EDUCATION,

es and
EDUCATION, INCLUDING UPDATED
ESPECIALLY IN CURRICULA AND
MARGINALIZED SKILLED TEACHERS, IS
COMMUNITIES, IS ESSENTIAL FOR
CRUCIAL FOR
INCLUSIVE HUMAN
CAPITAL
MEANINGFUL HUMAN
CAPITAL INVESTMENT. Solutions
DEVELOPMENT.

LIFELONG GOVERNMENT
LEARNING: POLICIES:
ENCOURAGING GOVERNMENTS PLAY A
LIFELONG LEARNING VITAL ROLE IN
OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPLEMENTING
CONTINUOUS SKILL POLICIES THAT
DEVELOPMENT, PROMOTE EDUCATION,
ESPECIALLY IN THE ENSURING IT IS
FACE OF EVOLVING AFFORDABLE,
TECHNOLOGIES, IS ACCESSIBLE, AND OF
NECESSARY. HIGH QUALITY.