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Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
Chapter 3: Processes
Process Concept
Process Scheduling
Operations on Processes
Interprocess Communication
Examples of IPC Systems
Communication in Client-Server Systems
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Objectives
To introduce the notion of a process -- a program in
execution, which forms the basis of all computation
To describe the various features of processes, including
scheduling, creation and termination, and communication
To explore interprocess communication using shared memory
and message passing
To describe communication in client-server systems
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Process Concept
An operating system executes a variety of programs:
Batch system – jobs
Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks
Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably
Process – a program in execution; process execution must
progress in sequential fashion
Multiple parts
The program code, also called text section
Current activity including program counter, processor
registers
Stack containing temporary data
Function parameters, return addresses, local variables
Data section containing global variables
Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run time
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Process Concept (Cont.)
Program is passive entity stored on disk (executable file),
process is active
Program becomes process when executable file loaded into
memory
Execution of program started via GUI mouse clicks, command
line entry of its name, etc
One program can be several processes
Consider multiple users executing the same program
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Process in Memory
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Process State
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Diagram of Process State
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Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each process
(also called task control block)
Process state – running, waiting, etc
Program counter – location of instruction
to next execute
CPU registers – contents of all process-
centric registers
CPU scheduling information- priorities,
scheduling queue pointers
Memory-management information –
memory allocated to the process
Accounting information – CPU used,
clock time elapsed since start, time limits
I/O status information – I/O devices
allocated to process, list of open files
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
CPU Switch From Process to Process
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Threads
So far, process has a single thread of execution
Consider having multiple program counters per process
Multiple locations can execute at once
Multiple threads of control -> threads
Must then have storage for thread details, multiple program
counters in PCB
See next chapter
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Process Representation in Linux
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Process Scheduling
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Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues
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Representation of Process Scheduling
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Schedulers
Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should
be executed next and allocates CPU
Sometimes the only scheduler in a system
Short-term scheduler is invoked frequently (milliseconds) (must be
fast)
Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should
be brought into the ready queue
Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes) (may
be slow)
The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming
Processes can be described as either:
I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations,
many short CPU bursts
CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very
long CPU bursts
Long-term scheduler strives for good process mix
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
CPU- vs. I/O-bound Process
More on this in the Scheduling chapter
In general, when a process is awaiting the
results of an I/O operation, it cannot proceed.
The short-term scheduler will instead
allocate the CPU to another process, until
the I/O operation is complete.
What if that other process also starts an I/O
operation?....
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Addition of Medium Term Scheduling
Medium-term scheduler can be added if degree of multiprogramming needs to
decrease
Why might that be desirable?.....
Remove process (temporarily) from memory, store on disk. Later, bring
back in from disk to continue execution = swapping
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Multitasking in Mobile Systems
Some mobile systems (e.g., early version of iOS) allow only one
process to run, others suspended
Due to screen real estate, iOS's user interface provides for a
Single foreground process- controlled via user interface
Multiple background processes– in memory, running, but not
on the display, and with limits
Limits include single, short task, receiving notification of events,
specific long-running tasks like audio playback
Android runs foreground and background, with fewer limits
Background process uses a service to perform tasks
Service can keep running even if background process is
suspended
Service has no user interface, small memory use
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Context Switch
When CPU switches to another process, the system must save
the state of the old process and load the saved state for the
new process via a context switch
Context of a process represented by its PCB
Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful
work while switching
The more complex the OS and the PCB the longer the
context switch
Time dependent on hardware support
Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU
multiple contexts loaded at once
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Operations on Processes
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Process Creation
Parent processes create children processes, which, in turn
create other processes, forming a tree of processes
Generally, process identified and managed via a process
identifier (pid)
Resource sharing options
Parent and children share all resources
Children share subset of parent’s resources
Parent and child share no resources
Execution options
Parent and children execute concurrently
Parent waits until children terminate
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
A Tree of Processes in Linux
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Process Creation (Cont.)
Address space
First, child is a duplicate of parent
Then child has a program loaded into its space
UNIX examples
fork() system call creates new process
exec() system call used after a fork() to replace the
process’ memory space with a new program
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
C Program Forking Separate Process
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Creating a Separate Process via Windows API
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Process Termination
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Process Termination
Some operating systems do not allow child to exist if its parent has
terminated. If a process terminates, then all its children must also be
terminated.
cascading termination. All children, grandchildren, etc. are
terminated.
The termination is initiated by the operating system.
The parent process may wait for termination of a child process by
using the wait()system call. The call returns status information
and the pid of the terminated process
pid = wait(&status);
A zombie process is one which has terminated before its parent has
invoked wait
If parent terminated without invoking wait , the child process is an
orphan
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Multiprocess Architecture – Chrome Browser
Many web browsers used to run as single process (some still do)
If one web site causes trouble, entire browser can hang or crash
Google Chrome Browser is multiprocess with 3 different types of
processes:
Browser process manages user interface, disk, and network I/O
Renderer process renders web pages, deals with HTML,
Javascript. A new renderer is created for each website opened
Runs in sandbox restricting disk and network I/O, minimizing
effect of security exploits Examine "google"
Plug-in process for each type of plug-in processes on your
machine
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Cooperating Processes
Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution
of another process
Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of
another process
Advantages of process cooperation
Information sharing
Computation speed-up
Modularity
Convenience
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Interprocess Communication
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Communications Models
(a) Message passing. (b) shared memory.
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Interprocess Communication – Shared Memory
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Producer-Consumer Problem
Classic exemplar for use of cooperating processes: producer
process produces information that is consumed by a
consumer process
unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size
of the buffer
bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer
size
Here we look at a solution that uses shared memory….
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution
#define BUFFER_SIZE 10
typedef struct {
. . .
} item;
item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];
int in = 0;
int out = 0;
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Producer and Consumer
item next_produced;
while (true) {
/* produce an item in next produced */
while (((in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE) == out)
; /* do nothing */
buffer[in] = next_produced;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
}
item next_consumed;
while (true) {
while (in == out)
; /* do nothing */
next_consumed = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Interprocess Communication – Message Passing
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Message Passing (Cont.)
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Message Passing (Cont.)
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Direct Communication
Processes must name each other explicitly:
send (P, message) – send a message to process P
receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q
Properties of communication link
Links are established automatically
A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating
processes
Between each pair there exists exactly one link
The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional
The underlying implementation of the link is "black-box".
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Indirect Communication
Messages are directed and received from mailboxes (also referred
to as ports)
Each mailbox has a unique id
Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox
Properties of communication link
Link established only if processes share a common mailbox
A link may be associated with many processes (many
processes using the same mailbox)
Each pair of processes may share several communication links
(multiple mailboxes)
Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Indirect Communication
Operations
create a new mailbox (port)
send and receive messages through mailbox
destroy a mailbox
Primitives are defined as:
send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A
receive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Indirect Communication
Mailbox sharing
P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A
P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive
Who gets the message?
Solutions
Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes
Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive
operation
Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver.
Sender is notified who the receiver was.
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Synchronization
Message passing may be either blocking or non-blocking
Blocking is considered synchronous
Blocking send -- the sender is blocked until the message is
received
Blocking receive -- the receiver is blocked until a message
is available
Non-blocking is considered asynchronous
Non-blocking send -- the sender sends the message and
continues
Non-blocking receive -- the receiver receives:
A valid message, or
Null message
Different combinations possible
If both send and receive are blocking, we have a rendezvous
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Producer-Consumer via Messaging
Producer-consumer becomes trivial
(Though we are omitting the details of establishing the communication links/mailboxes.)
message next_produced;
while (true) {
… /* produce an item in next_produced */
send(next_produced);
}
message next_consumed;
while (true) {
receive(next_consumed);
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Buffering
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Examples of IPC Systems - POSIX
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IPC POSIX Producer
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IPC POSIX Consumer
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Communications in Client-Server Systems
Sockets
Remote Procedure Calls
Pipes
Remote Method Invocation (Java)
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Sockets
A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication
All ports below 1024 are well known, used for standard
services
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Socket Communication
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Sockets in Java
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Remote Procedure Calls
Remote procedure calls (RPC) abstract procedure calls between
processes on networked systems
Also uses ports for service differentiation
Stubs – client-side proxy for the actual procedure on the server
The client-side stub locates the server and marshals the parameters
The server-side stub receives this message, unpacks the marshalled
parameters, and performs the procedure on the server
On Windows, stub code compiled from specification written in
Microsoft Interface Definition Language (MIDL)
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Remote Procedure Calls (Cont.)
Data representation handled via External Data Representation (XDL)
format to account for different architectures where procedure is
invoked and executed
For example, big-endian and little-endian number representation
Remote communication has more failure scenarios than local
Messages can be delivered exactly once rather than at most
once
OS typically provides a rendezvous (or matchmaker) service to
connect client and server
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Execution of RPC
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Remote Method Invocation, Java
As Java is O.O., we use methods rather than procedures. RMI instead of
RPC, but it's similar concept.
Stubs and skeletons stand in as the calling and invoked objects.
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
How does RMI work?
A subinterface of
java.rmi.Remote that
defines the methods
An object that resides
An object that resides for the server object. on the server host,
on the client host and
communicates with the
serves as a surrogate
stub and the actual
for the remote server
server object.
object.
Client Host Server Host
Server Object (4) Data Server Object
Interface Communication Interface An instance of the
A program that invokes Server Server
Client Server server object
the methods in the Stub Skeleton
Object
Program interface.
remote server object.
(3) Return
Server Stub RMI Registry Host (1) Register Server Object
RMI
Registry
(2) Look for Server Object
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Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition
Example Java RMI
See RemoteDate.java, RemoteDateImpl.java, RMIClient.java
See Canvas for instructions on how to run.
Can run across network, but you have to set up router to allow RMI traffic.
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Pipe
Acts as a conduit allowing two processes to communicate
Issues:
Is communication unidirectional or bidirectional?
In the case of two-way communication, is it half or full-
duplex?
Must there exist a relationship (i.e., parent-child) between
the communicating processes?
Can the pipes be used over a network?
Ordinary pipes – cannot be accessed from outside the process
that created it. Typically, a parent process creates a pipe and
uses it to communicate with a child process that it created.
Named pipes – can be accessed without a parent-child
relationship.
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.63 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Ordinary Pipes
Ordinary Pipes allow communication in standard producer-consumer
style
Producer writes to one end (the write-end of the pipe)
Consumer reads from the other end (the read-end of the pipe)
Ordinary pipes are therefore unidirectional
See Unix terminal example of ls | wc
Require parent-child relationship between communicating processes
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.64 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
Named Pipes
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition 3.65 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018, 2023; Evett mods 2023
End of Chapter 3
Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018