UNIT – I

NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS
 Introduction to Networks
• A Network: A group of devices that
can communicate with each other over links.
• Each device is called a host. Each host has
a unique address.
• Network is a connection between two or
more devices.
• Which is connected by a communication
links.
• A node can be computer, printer or any
other devices which is capable of sending
and receiving information at each other.
Example:
 INTERNET
• An internet:

each host has an

address of the form n/h where n is the
network number and h is the number of the
host on network n.
 Uses of Network
• It is Used for

i) Business Application
ii) Home Application
iii) Mobile Users
iv) E-Mail
 Categories or Types of Network
• There are Three Types:
1. LAN - Local Area Network
2. MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
3. WAN – Wide Area Network
1. LAN - Local Area Network
A LAN is Designed by Local Area Connections such
as:
i) within Building
ii) within office
iii) within Campus
iv) within Specific Place
Advantages :
1) Sharing of Files.
2) Sharing of Programs.
3) Communication Exchange.

Disadvantages :
4) Reliability.
5) Capacity.
6) High Cost.
2. MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a
network that interconnects users with
computer resources in a geographic area or
region larger than that covered by even a
large local area network (LAN) but smaller
than the area covered by a wide area
network (WAN).
• MAN supports up to 150 Kilometers Distance.
• Example:
 Telephone Network
 Cable TV
Advantages :
1) High Bandwidth.
2) It support Large number of Clients.
3) Reduce the Errors.

Disadvantages :
4) Large Space Requirements.
5) Slower Data Access.
6) High Cost.
3. WAN – Wide Area Network
• WAN Provide a Long Distance Transmission of Data.
• By Using WAN Exchange the Information from
one country to another country.
 Components of Network
- Which gives the Request.
- Which gives the Response.
- It Indicates Modulator / Demodulator.
- Which identifies the Path between Client
& Server.
- Which
overcomes the Traffic
problems.
 Communication Model
• Data communications are exchange of
data between two devices via some
transmission medium.
• It should be done in two ways
i) Local - It takes LAN Connection.
ii)Remote - It takes Long distance like
MAN & WAN.
• Data should be Transferred in the form of
0’s and 1’s
 Transmissio
Source Destination
n Medium

1)Delivery - The System must deliver the data

to the correct Destination.
2)Accuracy - The System must deliver the data
at Accurate way.
3)Timeline - The System must deliver the data at Exact
Time.

4) Jitter – It is metric used to access the network

performance.It refers to the variable in the

i) Sender iv) Message

ii) Receiver v) Protocol
iii) Medium
5. 5.
Protocol 4.
Protocol
Step : 1 Message
Step : 1
Step : 2 Step : 2

1. Sender 3. Medium 2.
Receiver
 : It is a device ,
that Sends the information to the
Receiver.
: It is a device , that Receives the
information from the Sender.
: It is the physical path
between Sender to Receiver.
: This is the passing
Informations.
: It is a set of rules and regulations
that “ Governed “ from data communication.
• Data Transmission occurs between sender and
receiver over some Transmission Medium or
Transmission Media.
• Transmission Media may be classified into Two
Types :
i) Guided Media [Wired Technology]
ii) Unguided Media [Wireless Technology]
i) Guided Media (Wired Network)
• In Guided Media Signals are Passed in a “
same physical path”
• Example:
i) Twisted pair Cable
ii) Coaxial Cable
iii) Fiber Optic Cable
ii) Unguided Media (Wireless Network)
• In Unguided Media Signals are Passed in
the form of “ Electromagnetic Waves”
• Example :
i) Mobile phones
ii) Satellite microwave
iii) Infrared
 It Provides
a dedicated links between two devices.
• For example, a wired system that connects two
computers together can be thought of a point-
to-point link.
 It is a link between
two or more devices. It is also known as Multi-
Point configuration. The networks having
multipoint configuration are called
 Transmission Mode
 It refers to the direction of
information flow between two
devices.
 Data flow is the flow of data
between 2 points.

The directionof the data flow can
be described as

Simplex Mode

Half-Duplex Mode

Full-Duplex Mode
 Simplex: Data flows in only one
direction on the data communication
line (medium).
Examples are Radio and Television
broadcasts.
 Half-Duplex: Data flows in both
directions but only one direction at a
time on the data communication line.
Ex. Conversation on walkie-talkies.
 Full-Duplex: Data flows in both
directions simultaneously. Modems are
configured to flow data in both
directions.
Ex. Phone Conversation
 Data
Flow

Figure 1.2 Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full-

 Protocol
• It is aArchitecture
layered structure ofH/W and S/W
that
supports exchange of data b/w systems
• It supports distributed applications(E-
Mail,
File Transfer)
• Each layer of protocol architecture
provides some set of rules
• There are 2 widely used
protocol architecture
TCP/IP Architecture
OSI Model
 Protocol
• Protocol is a set of rules that govern
data communication
• It represents what is communicated, when
it is communicated and how it is
communicated.
• There are 3 key elements
Syntax
Semantics
Timing
 Syntax
• It represents structure, Format of data
the order in which it is presented
Data may contain:
• First 8 bit -> Sender Address
• Second 8 bit -> Receiver Address
• Remaining bits-> message stream
 SEMANTICS

• It refers the meaning of each section of bit

TIMING

• It refers when data sent and how fast it is

sent (Says Characteristics)
• Ex:100Mbps
• It provides model for the development
of product regardless of individual
manufacturer
• It falls in 2 categories
 De Facto standard

• Not officially adopted but used

widespread
• It has 2 categories
• Proprietary->Wholly owned by company
• Non-Proprietary->Group or communiy
developed for public
 De Jure Standard
• A Standard Legislated by an
officially recognized body

Standard Organizations:
• International Standard Organization
• ANSI
• IEEE
 The OSI Model
• An ISO (International standard Organization) that
covers all aspects of network communications is the
Open System Interconnection (OSI) model.
• An open system is a model that allows any two
different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architecture (hardware or software).
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is model for
understanding and designing a network architecture
that is flexible, robust and interoperable.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the
design of network systems that allows for
communication across all types of computer
systems.
• The OSI model is built of seven ordered layers:
1. (Layer 1) Physical layer
2. (Layer 2) Data link layer
3. (Layer 3) Network layer
4. (Layer 4) Transport layer
5. (Layer 5) Session layer
6. (Layer 6) Presentation layer
7. (Layer 7) Application layer
 Peer-to-Peer Process
• Within a single machine, each layer calls upon services of
the layer just below it.
• Layer 3, for example, uses the services provided by layer
2 and provides services for layer 4.
• Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates
with layer x on another machine, by using a protocol
(this is Peer-to-Peer Process).
• Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-
peer process using protocols appropriate to a given
layer.
 Interfaces between
• Layers
There is an interface between each pair
of adjacent layers. This interface
defines what
information and services a layer provide
must for the layer above it.
 Functions of Layers
1. Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for transmitting
individual bits from one node to the next.
 Physical layer
The physical layer is concerned with the following:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and
media: It define the type of transmission media
• Representation of the bits: the physical layer
data consist of a stream of bits(0,1). The
transmitted bits must be encoded into signals –
electrical or optical. The physical layer defines
the type of encoding.
• Data rate: The physical layer defines the
transmission rate, the number of bits sent each
second.
 Physical Layer
• Line configuration: the physical layer is
concerned with the connection of
devices to the medium.
• Physical topology – Ring, star
• Transmission Mode - Simplex,
Half duplex Full Duplex
 2. Data Link
• It is responsibleLayer
for node-to-node delivery of
data.
Functions of the Data Link Layer:
• Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from the network layer into data units called
frames.

• Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to

different systems on the network, the data link layer
adds a header to the frame to define the physical
address of the sender (source address) and/or receiver
(destination address) of the frame.

• If the frame is intended for a system outside the

sender’s network, the receiver address is the address of
the device that connects one network to the next.
• Flow Control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by
the receiver is less than the rate produced in the sender, the
data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
prevent overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames. control
Error
normally achieved through a trailer to the end of the frame.
is
• Access Control. When two or more devices are connected
to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any
time.
 3. Network
Layer
•The Network layer is responsible for the source-to-
destination
delivery of a packet possible across
multiple networks.
•It converts Frames into packets.

•If two systems are connected to the same link,

there is usually no need for a network layer.
However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks, there is often a need for the network layer
to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
 Network
Functions: Layer
•Logical addressing-Physical addressing handle
addressing problem locally
•If packet pass the network boundary, we need another
addressing
called logical addressing.
•Routing - Route the packet to final destination

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the original
source to the final destination.
 4. Transport
Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process
or end-end delivery of the entire message.
• The network layer oversees host-to-destination delivery of
individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship
between those packets.
• The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives
intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow
control at the process-to-process level.
 Transport
layer

The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message

from one process to another.
 Functions of the Transport layer

Service point addressing:

Computer often run several processes (running programs)
at the same time. Process-to-process delivery means
delivery from a specific process on one computer to a
specific process on the other.
• The transport layer header include a type of address
called port address.
• The network layer gets each packet to the correct
computer; the transport layer gets the entire message to the
correct process on that computer.
 Cont..
,
• Segmentation and reassembly: a message is divided
into transmittable segments, each having a sequence
number. These numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arrival at the
destination.
• Connection control: The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection-oriented.
• A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an
independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at
the destination machine.
• A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine first
before delivering the packets. After all the data are
transferred, the connection is terminated.
 Functions of the transport layer
• Flow control: the transport layer performs a flow control
end to end.
• Error control: the transport layer performs error control
end to end.
• Congestion control concerns controlling traffic entry into
a telecommunication networks so as to avoid congestive
collapse by attempting to avoid oversubscription of any of
the processing or link capabilities of the intermediate
nodes and networks and taking resource reducing steps,
such as reducing the rate of sending packets. It should not
be confused with flow control, which prevents the sender
from overwhelming the receiver.
 5. Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
 Functions of Session Layer

• Decision Control:- Half duplex,

Full Duplex
• Synchronization: Adding checkpoints
to stream data.
• Ex: System sending 2000 pages.
• Add check point after each 100th page.
• So in case of failure no need to sent
whole page.
 6. Presentation Layer
• It is concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged
b/w 2 devices.
 Functions of Presentation Layer
• Translation: Interoperability b/w
different encoding formats.
• Encryption: Converting plain to cipher
text and vice versa.
• Compression: Reducing number of bits
in multimedia data when transmitting.
 7. Application
layer
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
 Functions of Application Layer

• It provides user access to

network.
• Message handling service. Access
• FTAM- File
Transfer management. and
•
Transmission Control Protocol /
Internetworking Protocol is used in the
internet and is developed prior to the OSI
model.
• It would not match exactly with OSI
model
• It is divided into layers.
TCP/IP
protocol
• It contains relatively independent protocols
that can mixed and matched with depend
on needs of the system.
• It defines the Physical (or)
Logical arrangement of Links in a
Network.
• Topology refers to the layout of connected
devices in a network.
• The Topology of the Network is
Geometric Representation of the
relationship between all Communication
links.
 Types of Topology

i) Mesh Topology
ii) Star Topology
iii) Tree Topology
iv) Bus Topology
v) Ring Topology
vi) Hybrid Topology
 Types of Topology

• Here every device has a direct point to

point link between every other device.
• A fully connected mesh can have n(n-
1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
if n=5 (Number of Nodes)
5(5-1)/2 = 10 ( Communication Links)
• 5 Nodes are Connected by using
10 Communication Links
Mesh Topology
 Mesh Topology
Advantages:
• It eliminate the traffic problem.
• It is robustness.
• It has privacy and security.
• Fault can be easily found.
 Mesh Topology
Disadvantages:
• More number of cables to be used.
• Every devices must be connected to some
other devices. So installation process is very
difficult.
 Types of Topology

• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link

between only a central controller or “HUB”.
• The devices are not directly linked to some
other devices.
• If one device wants to send data to another
device, it sends to the central controller and
the Central controller send to other device.
 Star Topology
Star Topology Diagram:

A B

Central controller
(or)
HUB

C D
 Star Topology
Advantages :
• Less expensive than Mess topology.
• Less number of cables to be used.
• It is robustness.
 Star Topology
Disadvantages:
• Each device must connected centra
to controller. l
• It require more installation
process. all the
• If central controller failure
means devices should be failed.
 Types of Topology

• Tree topology has some variation from

star topology.
• The nodes in the tree are linked to the
central controller.
• The primary HUB in the tree is represented
by “Active Hub”.
• The secondary HUB in the tree is represented
by “Passive Hub”.
Tree Topology
 Tree Topology
Advantages:
• It allows more devices to be attached in
a single central controller.
• It allows the network to prioritize
the communication.
 Tree Topology
Disadvantages:
• Each device must be linked centra
to controller. l
• It require more installation processes.
• If central controller failure entire
means system should fail down.
 Types of Topology

• A Bustopology describes the

multipoint configuration.
• One long cable act as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network.
• Devices are connected in a bus topology
with the help of “Drop lines” and “Tapes”.
 Bus Topology
Bus Topology Diagram:

A B C D

Back bone Drop line Drop line Tap Back

bone e
 Bus Topology
Advantages:
• Installation process is very easy.
• Redundancy can be eliminated.
• Less number of cables to be used.
 Bus Topology
Disadvantages:
• Reconfiguration is very difficult.
• Very difficult to adding (or) deleting
of a devices
 Types of Topology

• InRing Topology each device has

dedicated point-to-point link between other
devices.
• The signals are passed along the “ring” in only
one direction from device to device.
• Each devices in a ring should have
a “Repeater”.
 Ring Topology
Ring Topology Diagram:

D Ring B

C
 Ring Topology
Advantages:
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Fault can be easily identified.
 Ring Topology
Disadvantages:
• It is unidirectional traffic.
• In rings if one device gets failure then the
entire system should be failed.
VI. Hybrid Topology
 Combination of all topology is
called hybrid topology.
The physical path between
transmitter and receiver.
• Repeaters or amplifiers may be used
to extend the length of the
medium.
• Communication of electromagnetic
waves is guided or unguided.
Twisted-pair
cable
UTP and
STP
Coaxial
Cable
 BNC connectors
•To connect coaxial cable to devices, it is necessary to use coaxial
connectors. The most common type of connector is the Bayone-Neill-
Concelman, or BNC, connectors.

Applications include cable TV networks, and some traditional

Ethernet LANs like 10Base-2, or 10-Base5.
Optical fibers
Propagation Modes (Types of Optical Fiber )
Propagation
Modes
 UNIT II DATA LINK LAYER

Data link control – Error Detection – VRC

– LRC – CRC – Checksum – Error
Correction – Hamming Codes – MAC –
Ethernet, Token ring , Token Bus –
Wireless LAN - Bluetooth – Bridges.
 UNIT – II

DATA LINK LAYER

 Data Link Control
Communication
Minimum 2 devices are needed for
data communication. So line
discipline is necessary for co-
operation b/w 2 devices.
The 2 important functions of data
link
layer is flow control and error
control.This functions are
otherwise called as Data link
control.
 Line
Discipline
It coordinates the link system
It is done in 2 ways
◦ ENQ (Enquiry)
 Used in peer – peer communication
 Enquire whether there is a required link b/w
two devices
 Check whether the intended device is capable to receive

◦ ACK (Acknowledgment)

 Used in Primary secondary communication

 The intended device will acknowledge about its status to the
Receiver

Peer-to-peer network is where normally 2 computers or more which are directly

linked to one another and share files between them.
Server-Client is the Primary-Secondary. One is server and others are client.
There are 2 categories in
line discipline
ENQ /ACK Line
Discipline
 Selec
t
It is a line discipline used in
with primary secondary
topologies
relationship.
Select
has
It something
is uses to primary
whenever the
send.ie)Primary controls the
device
link.
Selec
t
Selec
t
 Pol
l
The polling function is used by
the primary device to Select
transmissions from the
secondary devices.
If the primary device is ready to
receive data , It ask each
device in turn if it has anything
to send.
Pol
l
 Flow
It is a set Control
of procedures to tell the
how much data it can transmit before
sender
wait for
it must an from
receiver.
acknowledgement the
Two categories of flow
control:
◦ Stop-and-wait
Send one frame at a
time.
◦ Sliding window
Send several frames at a
 Stop-and-wait
Sender sends one frame and waits for an
acknowledgement before sending the
next frame.
 Stop-and-wait
Advantages:
◦ Simplicity.
◦ Each frame is checked and
acknowledged before the next
frame is sent.
Disadvantages:
◦ Slow.
Can add significantly to the total
transmission time if the distance
between devices is long.
◦ Inefficiency
Each frame is alone on the line.
 SlidingWindow
Sender can send several
frames before
needing an
◦ The link can carry several frames at
acknowledgement.
◦ Its capacity can be used
Advantages:
once.
efficiently.
Error
Control
Error
Detection
Error
Detection
 Even number of
ones
–add 0
Odd number of
ones
– add 1

Can detect all single-bit errors. Can detect burst errors only if
the total
• Increases the likelihood of detecting burst
errors.
•n bits LRC can detect a burst error of n bits.
•Errors may be undetected if:
• Have even number of errors in that
position.
Checksum is the error detection method used by upper layer protocols and is considered to be
more reliable than LRC, VRC and CRC. This method makes the use of Checksum Generator on
Sender side and Checksum Checker on Receiver side.
Receiver’s End
Error
Correction
Redundancy
Bits
Hamming Codes-Error
correction
Hamming codes are appended to
the transmitted message

Hamming codes contain the

information necessary to locate
a single bit error
 Calculating the Hamming
CodeCode is the use of extra parity bits to
The key to the Hamming
allow the
identification of a single error. Create the code word as
follows:
◦ Mark all bit positions that are powers of two as parity bits. (positions
1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, 64,etc.)
◦ All other bit positions are for the data to be encoded. (positions 3,
5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, etc.)
◦ Each parity bit calculates the parity for some of the bits in the
code word.The
position of the parity bit determines the sequence of bits that it
alternately
checks and skips.
Position 1: check 1 bit, skip 1 bit, check 1 bit, skip 1 bit, etc.
(1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,...)
Position 2: check 2 bits, skip 2 bits, check 2 bits, skip 2 bits,etc.
(2,3,6,7,10,11,14,15,...)
Position 4: check 4 bits, skip 4 bits, check 4 bits, skip 4 bits,etc.
(4,5,6,7,12,13,14,15,20,21,22,23,...)
Position 8: check 8 bits, skip 8 bits, check 8 bits, skip 8bits, etc.
(8-15,24-31,40-
47,...)
Position 16: check 16 bits,skip 16 bits,check 16 bits, skip 16 bits,
etc.(16-31,48-
63,80-95,...)
Position of Redundancy
bit in Hamming
code
Erro
r
Error
Control
Stop-and-Wait
ARQ
Sliding window
ARQ
 MAC
IEEE has subdivided(Project 802)
the data link layer into two sub
layers:
◦ Logical Link Control
◦ Medium access control
Functions of MAC
It resolves the contention of shared
media
It contains all information to move
information from one place to
another
It contains the physical address of
 The project 802 which governs internet working. Here
each
subdivision is identified by a number
802.1(internetworking)
802.2(LLC-Logical link control – NIC )-802.2 is
concerned with managing traffic over the physical
network
and MAC modules
802.3(CSMA/CD)
802.4(Tokenbus)
802.5(Tokenring)
Figure 13.1 IEEE standard for
LANs
MAC protocol are specific to
LANLAN is a Local Area Network
used for communication inside
building
Protocols for LAN are,
◦ Ethernet
◦ Token Ring
◦ Token bus
◦ FDDI-Fiber Distributed Data Interface-
Fiber optic connection
 IEEE STANDARDS

Ethernet: It is a LAN protocol that is used in Bus and Star

topologiesand
implements CSMA/CD as the medium access method

Original (traditional) Ethernet developed in 1980 by

three companies: Digital, Intel, Xerox (DIX).

In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a

project, called Project 802, to set standards to enable
intercommunication among equipment from a variety of
manufacturers.
 Current version is called IEEE Ethernet
◦ IEEE 802.3 supports LAN standard
Ethernet
◦ IEEE802.3 defines two categories
Baseband
Broadband
◦ Base band has five different
category
10Base5
10Base2
10BaseT
1Base5
etc.,
◦ Broad
band has
 Access
Method:CSMA/CD
When multiple user access the single line
,there is a danger of signals overlapping
and destroying each other(Traffic) .such an
overlap is called Collisions.
To avoid this the access method used in
Ethernet is carrier sense multiple
access/collision detection
In CSMA any workstation wishing to
transmit must listen to existing traffic on
the line
If no voltage is detected ,line is considered
idle
CSMA cuts down the number of collisions,
but cant eliminate. Collisions still occur if
both station try to listen at a time.
 IEEE 802.3 Cable Types
Name Cable Max. Max Nodes
Toplogy
Cable /segment
Segment
Length
10Base5 thick coax 500 meters 100
Bus

10Base2 thin coax 185 meters 30

Bus

10BaseT twisted pair 100 meters 1

Star

10BaseF Fiber Optic 2Km 1

Star
Networking and
internetworking
devices:
An internet is a interconnection of
individual network. So to create a
internet we need a
internetworking devices. ie)
Linking a number of LAN’s
Internet - W W W
internet-Interconnection of LAN
Why
Interconnect?
• To separate / connect one corporate division with
another.
• To connect two LANs with differentprotocols.
• To connect a LAN to the Internet.
• To break a LAN into segments to relieve traffic
congestion.
• To provide a security wall between two different types
ofusers.
 Connecting Devices

Internetworki
Networking
ng
Devices
Devices

Repeater Bridge Router Gateway

s s s s
Introducti
on
• Many times it is necessary to connect a local area network to
another local
area network or to a wide area network.
• Local area network to local area network connections are usually
performed
with a bridge.
• Local area network to wide area network connections are usually
performed
with a router.
• A third device, the switch, can be used to interconnect segments
of a local
area network.
Connecting
Devices

Hu
b

98
/
 Repeater:
A repeater is a regenerator,
not an amplifier
A repeater installed on a link
receives the signal before it
becomes too weak or
corrupted ,regenerates the
original bit pattern, and put the
refreshed copy back onto the
link.
 Gateway
s:
A gateway is a protocol
convertor.
It accepts a packet format for
one protocol(e.g., Apple Talk) and
convertsit into a packet format
for another protocol(e.g.,TCP/IP).
A gateway

SNA network (IBM)

Netware network
(Novell)
10
4
 Bridge
Divide a slarge network into smaller
segment
It filters the traffic . It contains
logic(Bridge table) that allows them to
keep the traffic for each segment
separate.
Ie) Isolating and controlling the link
problems (e.g.congestion)
Bridges have look-up table that
contains
physical address of every station 10
5
Bridge

10
8
When aframe enters abridge ,itchecks the address of
the destination and forward the new copy only to
the segment to which the address which
belongs
 Type
Simple s
Multiport
Transparent
Remote
Source
routing
 Simple
It is a Bridge
less expensive type of
bridge
It links 2 segments (LANS) and
lists the address of all the stations
in table included in each of them.
Here address must be entered
manually. The table is modified
when stations are added and
removed.
 Multiport
Bridge
It is used to connect more than two
LANS. So the bridge has 3 tables.
Here address must be entered
manually
Transparent Bridge:
• A transparent or learning bridge builds its table
of station on its own (automatically).
• The table is empty when it is installed, it builds
its table when it encounters the packet for
transmission. It uses the source address for
building table.
• It identifies the changes and update the table
when system moved from one station to
Multiport
bridge

11
3
 Data Communications and Computer Networks

Remote
•Bridges
A remote bridge is capable of passing a data
frame from one local area network to another
when the two LANs are separated by a long
distance and there is a wide area network
connecting the two LANs.
•A remote bridge takes the frame before it
leaves the first LAN and encapsulates the
WAN headers and trailers.
•When the packet arrives at the destination
remote bridge, that bridge removes the
WAN headers and trailers leaving the
 Data Communications and Computer Networks

Switche
•s
A switch is basically a hardware or a device which is
responsible for channeling the data that is coming into the
various input ports to a particular output port which will
further take the data to the desired destination.It is thus
mainly used for the transfer of the data packets among
various network devices such as routers, servers etc.It is
actually a data link layer device (layer 2 device) which ensures
that the data packets being forwarded are error free and
accurateIt can interconnect two or more workstations. , but
like a bridge, it observes traffic flow and learns
Wireless LANs
 LAN/WLAN
World
 LANs provide connectivity for
interconnecting computing resources
at the local levels of an organization
 Wired LANs
Limitations because of
physical,hard- wired
infrastructure
 Wireless LANs provide
Flexibility
Portabili
ty
Wireless LAN
Applications
Medical
Professionals
Education
Airlines
Security Staff
Emergency
Centers
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless
LAN Standard
 In response to lacking standards,
IEEE developed the first
internationally recognized wireless
LAN standard – IEEE 802.11
 IEEE published 802.11 in 1997, after
seven years of work
 Scope of IEEE 802.11 is limited to
Physical and Data Link Layers.
BSS and ESS
ESS
Difference between BSS and ESS
Difference between BSS and ESS
 StationTyp
es
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of
stations based on their mobility in
a wireless LAN:
◦ no-transition
A station is either stationary (not moving) or moving only
inside a BSS
◦ BSS-transition
station can move from one BSS to another, but the movement
is confined inside one ESS.
◦ and ESS-transition mobility.
A station can move from one ESS to another
 collision
avoidanceCSMAICA
network allocation vector (NAV) used to
avoid collision.
◦ Frame includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy
the channel.
◦ stations affected by this transmission create a timer called (NAV)
◦ the network allocation vector (NAV) shows the time must pass
before these stations allowed to check the channel for idleness.
there is no mechanism for collision detection, if the
sender has not received a CTS frame from the receiver,
assumes there has been a collision ,the sender tries
again.
 BLUETOOT
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN
H
technology designed to connect devices of
different functions
such as telephones, notebooks, computers,
cameras, printers, coffee makers, and so
on. A

Bluetooth defines two types of

networks: piconet and scatternet.
Picone
tA Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net.
It can have up to eight stations, one of which is called the
master; the rest
are called slaves.
Maximum of seven slaves. Only one master.
Slaves synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with
the master. But an additional eight slaves can stay in parked
state, which means they
can be synchronized with the master but cannot take part in
communication until it is moved from the parked state.
 Scatternet

Piconets can be combined to form what is

called a scatternet.
A slave station in one piconet can
become the master in
• another piconet.
Bluetooth devices has a built-in short-range
radio transmitter.
Bluetooth
layers
Radio Layer: Roughly equivalent to physical layer of the
Internet model.
Physical links can be synchronous or asynchronous.
◦ Uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum [Changing frequency of
usage].
Changes it modulation frequency 1600 times per second.
◦ Uses frequency shift keying (FSK )with Gaussian bandwidth
filtering to transform bits to a signal.
Baseband layer: Roughly equivalent to MAC sublayer in
LANs. Access is using Time Division (Time slots).
◦ Length of time slot = dwell time = 625 microsec. So, during
one frequency, a sender sends a frame to a slave, or a slave
sends a frame to the master.
Time division duplexing TDMA (TDD-TDMA) is a kind of half-
duplex communication in which the slave and receiver send
and receive data, but not at the same time (half-duplex).
However, the communication for each direction uses different
hops, like walkie-talkies.
Bluetooth
layers
 Physical
Links connection-oriented (SCO)
Synchronous
◦ Latency is important than integrity.
◦ Transmission using slots.
◦ No retransmission.
Asynchronous connectionless link (ACL)
◦ Integrity is important than latency.
◦ Does like multiple-slave communication.
◦ Retransmission is done.
L2CAP (Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol)
◦ Equivalent to LLC sublayer in LANs.
◦ Used for data exchange on ACL Link. SCO channels do not use
L2CAP.
◦ Frame format has 16-bit length [Size of data coming from upper
layer in bytes],
channel ID, data and control.
◦ Can do Multiplexing, segmentation and Reassembly, QoS [with no
QoS, best- effort delivery is provided] and Group mangement [Can
 UNIT III
NETWORK LAYER
Network layer – Switching concepts –
Circuit switching – Packet switching – IP
Addressing –IPV4, IPV6 – Routing
Protocols – Distance Vector – Link State.
 UNIT – III

NETWORK LAYER
• Network Layer OVERVIEW
• Switching Concepts
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Message Switching
• IP Addressing
• IPV4
• IPV6
• Routing Protocols
• Distance Vector Routing
• Link State Routing
 Network Layer
•The Network layer is responsible for
the source-to-destination delivery of a
packet possible across multiple
networks.
• It converts Frames into packets.
• Source-to-Destination delivery of a
packet
• Logical addressing
• Routing
• Internetworking
Network layer
Duties

3
 Switching Concepts
Switches are hardware or software devices
used for temporary connection b/w 2 or
more devices
Switches are needed to connect multiple
devices for making one-one
communication

TYPES:
•
 Circuit
Itswitching
creates direct physical
connection b/w two devices
such as phone or
computers.
Any computer can be
connected to any other using
Layers.
N-by-N folded switches can
connect n lines in full duplex
mode.
2 types:
 Space Division
Switch
Path in the circuit are separated from each other
It is used both in analog and
digital communication
2 Types:
◦ Crossbar switch
◦ Multistage switch
• Crossbar Switch:
It connects n inputs to moutputs using
cross

points
• Limitation:
Crossbar
Switch:
 Multistage switch
Devices are linked to switches ,that are in
turn linked to another switches(Hierarchy
of switches)
 Time Division
It usesSwitches
time division multiplexing

2 methods:
Time slot
interchange
TDM bus
Time slot
interchange:
It changes the ordering of the
slotbased on the desired connection
It uses RAM to store
time slot Ex:
1->3 2->4 3->1 4-
TS
I
 TDM Bus- Time Div ision
Multiplexing Here each input
and output lines are connected to high
speed bus
Each bus is closed during one of the four
time slots
 Limitations of Circuit
• It Switching
is specially designed for
communication(telephone).
voice suitabl
Not for data communication. e
• Once a circuitis
established,
duration of the it remains
session.
• for data rate because
Less of
point to connection. poi
nt
 Packet
• switching
Packet switching is better
for data transmission.
• Here data are transmitted
throughunit of variable length blocks
• called
Longerpackets.
transmission are int
divided multiple packets. o
• Packet length is decided by
network.
 DatagramAppro
• ach approach a
In this message
is divided into multiple
packets.
• All packets choose
various routes and reaches
the destination.
• Ordering of packets in destination is
done
by transport layer.
DatagramAppro
ach
 Virtual Circuit
It approach
uses single route to send all
packets of the message
Two formats:
◦ Switched virtual circuit
◦ Permanent virtual circuit
SVC
• Connection is temporary
• Dial-up lines
DuringTransmission.
A connection is are sent
established-all packets proper –
ACK- Connection is terminated
 PV
• C
Connection is permanent.
• Circuit is dedicated for two users, No
one else can use the line when
communication takes place.
• It always gets the same route.
• Leased lines.
During Transmission.
No connection establishment or
termination
PV
C
 Message
• It usesSwitching
a mechanism called store and
forward
• Here a message is received and stored
until a appropriate route is free,
then sends along.
• Message switching- uses
secondary storage(Disk)
• Packet switching – uses
primary storage(RAM)
 Router
• s which route is best
The routers decide
among many routes in a particular
transmission.
• Routers are like stations on the
network
Routing
concepts:
Least cost
routing:
Cheaper
Shortest path(using small number of relays
 Non - Adaptive
Routing
In some routing protocols , once a
pathway to a destination is selected
,the router sends all packets in that
way.
Adaptive Routing:
The router may select new route for
each packet.
• To route the packet with optimal
cost many routing algorithms are
used to Calculating the shortest path
between 2 routers
1. Distance Vector Routing
2. Link State Routing
 Distance vector
Def: Routing
• Each router periodically shares its
knowledge about the entire network with
its neighbor.
• It is represented by graph.

Key Works:
• Each router shares its knowledge about
the
entire network to neighbors.
• Routing only to the directly linked routers.
• Information sharing at regular
interval(each 30 seconds).
The Concept of Distance Vector
Routing
2
8
1

Distance Vector Routing

Table

12/28/202 Unit-3 : Network

Routing Table
Distribution
 Link State
Routing
Def:
Each router shares its knowledge of it
neighborhood with all routers in the
internetwork.
It is represented by directed graph with weight.
Key work:
Each router shares its knowledge
about the neighborhood
Each router sends its knowledge to all
router.
Flooding -> Each router share
info to neighbor, The neighbor to its
own neighbor and so on.,
Concept of Link State Routing
Cost in Link State
Routing
2
8
6
Link State Packet

12/28/202 Unit-3 : Network

2
8
7 Link State Database

12/28/202 Unit-3 : Network

 TCP/
• IP developed before OSI
It was
• This project was funded by ARPA calle
of U.S ARPANET which is turned d
• into
In internet it acts like a TCP/IP
networ
single connection many of k
any size and type.
• TCP and UDP creates a data
unit called
Segment or datagram.
 What is an IP
An address?
Internet Protocol address is a
numerical label assigned to each device
connected to a computer network that
uses the Internet Protocol for
communication.
An IP address serves two principal
functions: host or network
interface identification location
addressing.
 IP (Internet
Proocol)
Network layer of TCP/IP supports IP in
turn four other supporting protocol
◦ ICMP
◦ IGMP
◦ ARP
◦ RARP
It is a transmission mechanism used
by TCP/IP protocols
IP
datagra
m
 C
ont.,
IP Is a unreliable and
connection less datagram
protocol.
No error checking or
tracking.
Data transmitted to destination
but no guarantees.
IP must be paired with TCP.
 IP
In addition to physical address (NIC) ,to
identify eachAddressing
device in the network it
requires IP address.
Address that identify host of its network.
An IP address is a 32-bit
address. The IP addresses are
unique and universal.
It Represented in a Dotted-
decimal Notation.
Example 1
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to
dotted- decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 11101111
00001011
11111011 00001111
b. 11111001 10011011
Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent
decimal number and add dots for separation:
a. 129.11.11.239
b. 249.155.251.15
Example 2
Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal notation
to binary notation.
a. 111.56.45.78
b. 75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary
equivalent (see Appendix B):

a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110

b. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110
Finding the class in decimal notation (changes from 0 to 255)
 Types of IP
address
Static address
Dynamic
address

Static IP
address
◦ manually input
by network
administrator.
◦ manageable for
 Types of IP
address
Dynamic IP address
examples - BOOTP,
DHCP
◦ Assigned by server
when host boots
◦Derived automaticallyfrom a range
of addresses
◦Duration of ‘lease’ negotiated, then
address released back to server
 Subnetti
ng
Dividing the network into several smaller
groups (subnets) with each group having its
own subnet IP address.
Site looks to rest of internet like single
network and routers outside the organization
route the packet based on the main Network
address.
Local routers route within subnetted
network using subnet address.
 Subnetti
Host portionng
of address partitioned into subnet
number (most significant part) and host number
(least significant part)
In this case, IP address will have 3 levels
(Main network, subnet, host)
Subnet mask is a 32-bit consists of zeros and ones
that indicates which bits of the IP address are
subnet number and which are host number
Subnet mask when AND ed with the IP address
it gives the subnetwork address
 Maskin
Masking
g. is a process that extracts the
address of the physical network from
an IP address.
Boundary level masking: Here
the mask numbers are either 255
or 0, finding the subnetwork
address is very easy.
Non-boundary level masking.
If mask numbers are not just 255 or
0,
 Supernettin
g:
• Supernetting combines several networks
into one lager one (Because of Address
reduction)
 IP Network
Addressing
INTERNET  world’s largest public data
network, doubling in size every nine
IPv4, defines a 32-bit address - 232
months
(4,294,967,296) IPv4 addresses available
The first problem is concerned with the
eventual depletion of the IP address space.
Traditional model of classful addressing does not
allow the address space to be used to its
maximum potential.
 ClassfulAddressi
ng
When IP was first standardized in Sep 1981,
each system attached to the IP based Internet
had to be assigned a unique 32-bit address
The 32-bit IP addressing scheme involves a
two level addressing hierarchy

Network Host Number

Number/Prefix
 Internet Protocol (IP)
What is Internet Protocol?
◦ Internet Protocol is a set of technical
rules that defines how computers
communicate over a network.

◦ Currently, There are two versions of

IP
IP version 4
(IPv4) IP version
6 (IPv6).
 Internet Protocol (IP)
What is IPv4?
◦ IPv4 was the first version of Internet
Protocol to be widely used, and
accounts for most of today’s
Internet traffic.

◦ There are just over 4 billion IPv4

addresses. While that is a lot of IP
addresses, it is not enough to last
forever.
 Internet Protocol (IP)
What is IPv6?
◦ IPv6 is a newer numbering system
that provides a much larger address
pool than IPv4. It was deployed in
1999 and should meet the world’s
IP addressing needs well into the
future.
 Internet Protocol (IP)
What is the major difference?
◦ The major difference between IPv4
and IPv6 is the number of IP
addresses.

◦ There are 4,294,967,296 IPv4

addresses.
◦ while, there are
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,60
7,431, 768,211,456 IPv6 addresses.
 128-bit IPv6
Address
3FFE:085B:1F1F:0000:0000:0000:00A9:1234

8 groups of 16-bit hexadecimal numbers

separated by “:”
Leading zeros
can be removed

3FFE:85B:1F1F::A9:1234

:: = all zeros in one or more group of

16-bit hexadecimal numbers
 IPv4 vs. IPv6
IPv6

IPv4 addresses are IPv6 addresses are

32 bit 128 bit
length. length.
IPv4 addresses are IPv6 addresses are
binary binary numbers
numbersrepresented in represented in
decimals. hexadecimals.
IPSec support is
Inbuilt IPSec support.
only
optional.
Fragmentation is done
Fragmentation is
 Packet flow identification is
available within the IPv6
No packet flow
header using the Flow
identification.
Label field.

Checksum field is No checksum field

available in IPv6
header.
in IPv4
header

Options fields are No option fields,

available but IPv6
Extension headers
in IPv4 are available.
header.

Address Resolution Protocol

Internet
IGMP is replaced
Group Management with Multicast
Protocol Listener Discovery
(IGMP) is used to (MLD) messages.
manage multicast
group membership.
Broadcast messages are
not available. Instead
a link- local scope "All
Broadcast messages nodes" multicast IPv6
are available. address(FF02::1) is
used for broadcast
similar functionality.
Manual configuration Auto-configuration
(Static) of IPv4 of addresses is
addresses or DHCP available.
 IPv4 companion protocols (1)
ARP: Address Resolution Protocol
◦ Mapping from IP address to MAC
address
ICMP: Internet Control Message
Protocol
◦ Error reporting & Query
IGMP: Internet Group Management
Protocol
◦ Multicast member join/leave
Unicast Routing Protocols (Intra-
AS)
 IPv4 companion protocols (2)
Multicast Routing Protocols
◦ Maintaining Multicast Routing Table
◦ E.g. DVMRP, MOSPF, CBT, PIM
Exterior Routing Protocols
(Inter-AS)
◦ E.g. BGP (Border Gateway
Protocol)
Quality-of-Service Frameworks
◦ Integrated Service (ISA, IntServ)
◦ Differentiated Service (DiffServ)
 Why IPv6?
Deficiency of IPv4
Address space
exhaustion
New types of service 
Integration
◦ Multicast
◦ Quality of Service
◦ Security
◦ Mobility (MIPv6)
Header and format
 Advantages of IPv6 over IPv4
Larger address
space Better
header format
New options
Allowance for extension
Support for resource
allocation Support for
more security Support for
mobility
Classless Addressing CIDR Notation
Classless Inter-Domain Routing or supernetting
Network address – It identifies a
network on internet. Using this, we can
find range of addresses in the network
and total possible number of hosts in
the network.
Mask – It is a 32-bit binary number that
gives the network address in the
address block when AND operation is
bitwise applied on the mask and any IP
address of the block.
The default mask in different classes are :
Class A – 255.0.0.0
Class B – 255.255.0.0
Class C – 255.255.255.0
Example : Given IP address 132.6.17.85 and
default class B mask, find the beginning
address (network address).
Solution : The default mask is 255.255.0.0,
which means that only the first 2 bytes are
preserved and the other 2 bytes are set to
0. Therefore, the network address is
132.6.0.0.
Classless Addressing
To reduce the wastage of IP addresses in a
block, we use sub-netting. What we do is
that we use host id bits as net id bits of a
classful IP address. We give the IP address
and define the number of bits for mask
along with it (usually followed by a ‘/’
symbol), like, 192.168.1.1/28. Here,
subnet mask is found by putting the given
number of bits out of 32 as 1, like, in the
given address, we need to put 28 out of
32 bits as 1 and the rest as 0, and so, the
subnet mask would be 255.255.255.240.
 Number of subnets : 2(Given bits for mask – No. of bits
in default mask)

2. Subnet address :
3. Broadcast address :
4. Number of hosts per subnet : 2(32 – Given bits
for mask)
–2
5. First Host ID : Subnet address + 1
(adding one to the binary representation
of the subnet address)
6. Last Host ID : Subnet address +
Number of Hosts
Example: Given IP Address –
172.16.0.0/25, find the number of subnets
and the number of hosts per subnet. Also,
for the first subnet block, find the subnet
address, first host ID, last host ID, and
broadcast address.
Solution: This is a class B address. So,
no. of subnets = 2(25-16) = 29 = 512.
No. of hosts per subnet = 2(32-25) – 2 = 27 –
2 = 128 – 2 = 126
For the first subnet block, we have subnet
address = 0.0, first host id = 0.1, last host
id = 0.126 and broadcast address = 0.127
An example of CIDR IP Address is-
182.0.1.2 / 28

It suggests-
28 bits are used for the identification of
network.
Remaining 4 bits are used for the
identification of hosts in the network.
Given the CIDR representation 20.10.30.35 / 27. Find the
range of IP Addresses in the CIDR block.

Solution-
Given CIDR representation is 20.10.30.35 / 27.
It suggests-
27 bits are used for the identification of network.
Remaining 5 bits are used for the identification of hosts in
the network.
Given CIDR IP Address may be represented as-
00010100.00001010.00011110.00100011 / 27
So,
First IP Address
= 00010100.00001010.00011110.00100000 = 20.10.30.3
2
Last IP Address
= 00010100.00001010.00011110.00111111 = 20.10.30.6
3
Given the CIDR representation 100.1.2.35 / 20. Find the
range of IP Addresses in the CIDR block.
Solution-
Given CIDR representation is 100.1.2.35 / 20.
It suggests-
20 bits are used for the identification of network.
Remaining 12 bits are used for the identification of hosts in
the network.
Given CIDR IP Address may be represented as-
01100100.00000001.00000010.00100011 / 20
So,
First IP Address =
01100100.00000001.00000000.00000000 = 100.1.0.0
Last IP Address
= 01100100.00000001.00001111.11111111 =
100.1.15.255

Thus, Range of IP Addresses = [ 100.1.0.0 , 100.1.15.255]

 UNIT – IV

TRANSPORT LAYER
• The Transport layer is responsible for process-
to-process or end-end delivery of the entire
message.
• The transport layer ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and overseeing both
 Service point addressing(Process-
Process delivery)
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Connection control
 Flow control(QoS) – MUX & Demux
 Error control – error checking
and recovery
 Congestion control
– Transport Layer Provides :
•Efficient
•Reliable and
•Cost-effective services
– Another TWO Kinds of Services are :
•Connection oriented -
TCP
•Connectionless - UDP
 Simple Service: Primitives
• Simple primitives:
– Connect
– Send
– Receive
– Disconnect
• How to handle incoming connection request in
server process?
Wait for connection request from client!
– listen
Berkeley service : Primitives
 Connection Establishment
• Once a connection is established, both client and
server may exachnge data using several system
calls.
• A connection is typically used for client-server
interaction.
• A server advertizes a particular server at a well-
known address and clients establish connections to
that socket to avail of the offered service.
• Thus the connection estblishment procedure is
asymmetric.
 Releasing a connection
– Asymmetric
• Connection broken when one party hangs
up
• Abrupt!  may result in data loss
– Symmetric
• Both parties should agree to release connection
• How to reach agreement? Two-army
problem
• Solution: three-way-handshake
– Pragmatic approach
• Connection = 2 unidirectional connections
• Sender can close unidirectional connection
 Flow
It is a set of procedures to tell the sender how
data it can Control
much transmit before it must wait for
acknowledgementfrom
an the
receiver.
Two categories of flow
control:
◦ Stop-and-wait
Send one frame at a
time.
◦ Sliding window
Send several frames at a
time.
 Stop-and-wait
Sender sends one frame and waits for an
acknowledgement before sending the
next frame.
 Stop-and-wait
Advantages:
◦ Simplicity.
◦ Each frame is checked and
acknowledged before the next
frame is sent.
Disadvantages:
◦ Slow.
Can add significantly to the total
transmission time if the distance
between devices is long.
◦ Inefficiency
Each frame is alone on the line.
 SlidingWindow
Sender can send several
frames before
needing an
◦ The link can carry several frames at
acknowledgement.
◦ Its capacity can be used
Advantages:
once.
efficiently.
 Congestion Control and Avoidance
• Congestion Control is with
efficiently using a network at high
concerned
load.
• Several techniques can be employed. These
include:
•–
Warnin Detection
g bit
– Chok
e Avoidance
packe
ts
– Load
shedd
 Principles of Congestion Control
Congestion:
informally: “too many sources sending too much
data too fast for network to handle”

– lost packets (buffer overflow at routers)

– long delays (queue-ing in router buffers)
 Causes of Congestion
 Two senders, Two
receivers
One router, Infinite buffers
 No retransmission
 Congestion Detection and Control
The following 3 Methods are used to Detect &
Control the Congestions :
1. Warning bit
2. Choke packets
3. Load shedding
 Warning Bit
• A special bit in the packet header is set by
the router to warn the source when
congestion is detected.
• The bit is copied and piggy-backed on the
ACK and sent to the sender.
• The sender monitors the number of ACK
packets it receives with the warning bit set
and adjusts its transmission rate accordingly.
6
3
4
7

Choke Packets
• A more direct way of telling the source to
slow down.
• A choke packet is a control packet
generated at a congested node and
transmitted to restrict traffic flow.
• The source, on receiving the choke packet
must reduce its transmission rate by a
certain percentage.
• An example of a choke packet is the
ICMP Source Quench Packet.
3
4
8 Load Shedding
• When buffers become full, routers simply
discard packets.
• Which packet is chosen to be the victim depends
on the application and on the error strategy
usedin the data link layer.
• For a file transfer, for, e.g. cannot discard older
packets since this will cause a gap in thereceived
data.
• For real-time voice or video it is probably
betterto
throw away old data and keep new packets.
• Get the application to mark packets with
discard priority.
 Congestion
Avoidance
The following 2 Methods are used to Avoid
the Congestions :
1. Random Early Discard
2. Traffic Shaping
3
5
0

Random Early Discard (RED)

• This is a proactive approach in which the
router discards one or more packets before the
buffer becomes completely full.
• Each time a packet arrives, RED
algorithm computes the the queue
length, avg. average
• If avg is lower than some lower threshold,
congestion is assumed to be minimal or non-
existent and the packet is queued.
3
5
1
RED, cont.
• If avg is greater than some upper threshold,
congestion is assumed to be serious and the
packet is discarded.
• If avg is between the two thresholds, this
might indicate the onset of congestion. The
probability of congestion is then calculated.
 Traffic Shaping
• Another method of congestion Avoidance is to
“shape” the traffic before it enters the
network.
• Traffic shaping controls the rate at which
packets are sent (not just how many). Used in
ATM and Integrated Services networks.
• At connection set-up time, the sender and
carrier negotiate a traffic pattern (shape).
• Two traffic shaping algorithms are:
– Leaky Bucket
– Token Bucket
 The Leaky Bucket Algorithm
• The Leaky Bucket Algorithm used to control
rate in a network. It is implemented as a single-
server queue with constant service time. If the
bucket (buffer) overflows then packets are
discarded.
 The Leaky Bucket Algorithm

(a)A leaky bucket with water. (b) a leaky bucket with packets.
 Token Bucket Algorithm
• In contrast to the LB, the Token Bucket
Algorithm, allows the output rate to vary,
depending on the size of the burst.
• In the TB algorithm, the bucket holds tokens. To
transmit a packet, the host must capture and destroy
one token.
• Tokens are generated by a clock at the rate of one
token every sec.
• Idle hosts can capture and save up tokens (up to the
max. size of the bucket) in order to sendlarger bursts
later.
The Token B5-u34cket
Algorithm

(a) Before. (b) After.

 Transmission Control
 Protocol
TCP reliable That is,
is protocol. either the
receiv always
negative sendspositive
acknowledgement aboutor
er the data packet
to the sender
 It ensures the data packet is reached
the destination or it needs to resend it.
 TCP provides end-to-end
communication.

ByteStrea
ByteStrea

m
m

 TCP provides full duplex server

T C P T C P

IP Internetwo
rk
Well-known ports used by TCP
Figure : TCP segment
format
 TCP
Header
 The length of TCP header is minimum
20 bytes long and maximum 60 bytes.
 Source Port (16-bits) - It identifies
source port of the application process
on the sending device.
 Destination Port (16-bits) - It identifies
destination port of the application
process on the receiving device.
 Sequence Number (32-bits) -
Sequence number of data bytes of
a segment in a session.
 Acknowledgement Number (32-
bits) - When ACK flag is set, this number
contains the next sequence number of
the data byte expected and works as
acknowledgement of the previous data
received.
 Data Offset (4-bits) - This field
implies both, the size of TCP header (32-
bit words) and the offset of data in
current packet in the whole TCP
segment.
 Reserved (3-bits) - Reserved for future
use and all are set zero by default.
 Flags (1-bit each)
 NS - Nonce Sum bit is used by Explicit
Congestion Notification signaling process.
 CWR - When a host receives packet with
ECE bit set, it sets Congestion Windows
Reduced to acknowledge that ECE
 received.
EC - If SYN bit is clear to 0, then ECE means
the IP that
E packet has its CE (congestion
experience) bit set.
 URG - It indicates that Urgent
Pointer field has significant data and
should be processed.
 ACK - It indicates that
Acknowledgement field has significance.
If ACK is cleared to 0, it indicates that
packet does not contain any
acknowledgement.
 PSH - When set, it is a request to the
receiving station to PUSH data (as soon
as it comes) to the receiving application
without buffering it.
 RST - Reset flag has the
following features:

It is used to refuse an incoming
connection.

It is used to reject a segment.

It is used to restart a connection.
 SYN - This flag is used to set up
a connection between hosts.
 FIN - This flag is used to release a
connection and no more data is
exchanged thereafter. Because packets
with SYN and FIN flags have sequence
 Windows Size - This field is used for
flow control between two stations and
indicates the amount of buffer (in
bytes) the receiver has allocated for a
segment,
i.e. how much data is the
receiver expecting.
 Checksum - This field contains the
checksum of Header, Data and
Pseudo Headers.
 Urgent Pointer - It points to the
urgent data byte if URG flag is set to 1.
 Options - It facilitates
additional
which areoptions
not covered by regul
the header. ar
 Option field is always 32-
described
words. If thisinfield contains databit
less
than 32-bit, padding is used to cover
the remaining bits to reach 32-bit
boundary.
 Connection Management in
TCP
 Opening a TCP
Connection
 Closing a TCP
Connection
 Special Scenarios
 State Diagram
 TCP Connection

Establishment
TCP uses a three-way handshake to open a
connection:

(1)ACTIVE OPEN: Client sends a segment with


SYN bit set *

port number of client

initial sequence number (ISN) of client
(2)PASSIVE OPEN: Server responds with a
segment with

SYN bit set *

initial sequence number of server

ACK for ISN of client
(3)Client acknowledges by sending a segment
with:
Figure : Connection establishment using three-way
handshaking
Figure : Connection termination using three-way handshaking
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is called a
connectionless, unreliable transport protocol. It does
not add anything to the services of IP except to
provide process-to-process communication instead
of host-to- host communication.

•provide unreliable service

Table : Well-known ports used with
UDP
Figure : User Datagram
Format
 UDP
Format
Source and destination port :
16, 16 identify applications at
ends of the connection
 length: 16 - length of datagram
including header and data
 checksum :16 -one’s
complement of header and
data including pseudo data
UDP for
Application
 TFTP
 DNS
 RPC,
NFS
 SNMP
Figure :Pseudo header for checksum calculation
Figure : Queues in
UDP
 TCP UDP

Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram Protocol

Connection Oriented Connection Less

Slow Fast
Highly Reliable Unreliable
20 Bytes 8 Bytes

It takes acknowledgement of data It neither takes acknowledgement,

and has the ability to retransmit if nor it retransmits the lost data.
the user requests.

TCP is heavy-weight. UDP is lightweight.

Stream-based Message-based

Delivery of all data is managed Not performed

Flow control using sliding None

window
protocol

TCP doesn’t supports Broadcasting. UDP supports Broadcasting.

Small to moderate amounts of Small to enormous amounts of the

data data

Applications where reliable Application where data delivery

transmission of data matters. speed matters.

FTP, Telnet, SMTP, IMAP. DNS, BOOTP, DHCP, TFTP.

• A protocol is designed to handle real-time
traffic (like audio and video) of the Internet, is
known as Real Time Transport Protocol
(RTP).
• RTP must be used with UDP.
• It does not have any delivery mechanism
like multicasting or port numbers.
• RTP supports different formats of files
like MPEG and MJPEG.
• It is very sensitive to packet delays and less
sensitive to packet loss.
• RTP is first time published in 1996 and
known as RFC 1889. And next it published
in 2003 with name of RFC 3550.
1. RTP mainly helps in media
mixing, sequencing and time-stamping.
2. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
3. Video Teleconferencing over Internet.
4. Internet Audio and video streaming.
• Version : This 2-bit field defines version number. The current version is
2.
• P –The length of this field is 1-bit. If value is 1, then it denotes
presence of padding at end of packet and if value is 0, then there is no
padding.
• X –The length of this field is also 1-bit. If value of this field is set to 1,
then its indicates an extra extension header between data and basic
header and if value is 0 then, there is no extra extension.
• Contributor count –This 4-bit field indicates number of contributors.
Here maximum possible number of contributor is 15 as a 4-bit field
can allows number form 0 to 15.
• M –The length of this field is 1-bit and it is used as end marker by
application to indicate end of its data.
• Payload types –This field is of length 7-bit to indicate type of payload.
We list applications of some common types of payload.
• Sequence Number –The length of this field is 16
bits. It is used to give serial numbers to RTP
packets.
• Time Stamp –The length of this field is 32-bit. It is
used to find relationship between times of
different RTP packets.
• Synchronization Source Identifier –This is a 32-bit
field used to identify and define the source. The
value for this source identifier is a random number
that is chosen by source itself.
• Contributor Identifier –This is also a 32-bit field
used for source identification where there is more
than one source present in session.
THANK YOU
 UNIT V APPLICATIONS
Applications - DNS – E-Mail Protocols –
WWW – SNMP – SMTP - Security –
Threats and Services- Cryptography -DES-
RSA- Web security -SSL .
 UNIT – V

APPLICATION
S
• Applications OVERVIEW
• DNS
• E-Mail Protocol
• WWW
• SNMP
• SMTP
• Security
• Threats and Services
• Cryptography
• DES
• RSA
• Web security
• SSL
• An application layer is an abstraction layer that
specifies the shared communications protocols
and interface methods used by hosts in a
communications network.
• The application layer abstraction is used in both
of the standard models of computer networking.
• The Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) and the OSI
model.
• Although both models use the same term for their
respective highest-level layer.
 Services of Application Layers
• File Transfer
• Addressing
• Mail Services
• Directory Services
• Authentication
 DNS
• (Domain Name System) The
Internet's
system for converting alphabetic names
into numeric IP addresses.
• For example, when a Web address (URL) is
typed into a browser, DNS servers return the
IP address of the Web server associated
with that name.
• In this example, the DNS converts the URL
www.company.com into the IP address
204.0.8.51.
A Hierarchy of Servers
• The DNS system is a hierarchy of duplicated
database servers worldwide that begin with the
"root servers" for the top-level domains (.com,
.net, .org, .gov, .edu, .mil, etc.). The root
servers point to the "authoritative" servers
located in ISPs,

www.yahoo.com
www --------> Host Name
Yahoo--------> Server Name
com ----------> Domain Name
 Structure of DNS
• It Consists of Four Elements

1. DNS Name Space

2. DNS Database
3. Name Servers
4. DNS Resolvers
 DNS Name Space
• The Domain Name Space consists of a tree data
structure.
• Each node or leaf in the tree has a label and zero or
more resource records (RR), which hold
information associated with the domain name.
• The domain name itself consists of the label, parent
node on the right.
• The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the
may consist of only one domain, or may consist of
many domains and sub- domains, depending on the
administrative choices of the zone manager.
• The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS
messages, queries and replies; both have the
same format.
• Each message consists of a header and four
sections: question, answer, authority, and an
additional space.
• A header field (flags) controls the content of these
four sections.
• The header section consists of the following
fields: Identification, Flags, Number of questions,
Number of answers, Number of authority
resource records (RRs), and Number of
additional RRs. Each field is 16 bits long.
• Primary website.
• Marketing campaign websites.
• Email servers.
• Customer support websites.
• Online resource libraries.
• Inside sales web portals.
• Electronic Mail or E-Mail is a method of sending
and receiving messages (Mail) electronically over
a Computer Network.
• E-Mail is a system allows a person or a group to
electronically communicate to others through
Internet.
• It is method of exchanging message between
people using electronic devices.
• Exchanging message as Text files and non-text
files (images, graphics Image, files so on.,)
Components of Email System
Mail Server
Receive, Store and Deliver the mail
DNS
Find and match the IP Address of the Mail
Server
 Mailbox
It is a Folder contains
Emails and their information.
 E-Mail Protocol

The E-Mail communication done via

is
three protocols in general. They are,
1.SMTP ( Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
2.POP ( Post Office Protocol)
3.IMAP ( Internet Mail Access Protocol)
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
 The SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
 Email is sent using this protocol.
 Is an internet standard communication
protocolfor
electronic mail transmission.
 Mail servers and other message transfer
agents use SMTP to send and receive mail
messages.
 ADVANTAGES:
 SMTP provides the simplest form of communicating
through email message between various computers
in a particular network.
 Since SMTP is developed from a simple platform ,
email messages may be sent easily and quickly.
 SMTP also offers reliability in terms of outgoing
email messages.
DISADVANTAGES:
 The main drawback of sending through an SMTP
server is that it is insecure, it can be easily hacked.
 Another disadvantage is the server limitation.
 POP (Post Office Protocol):
 This protocol is also used for incoming emails.
 The main difference with the both protocols is that POP
downloads the entire email into the local computer and
deletes the data on the server once it is downloaded.
 This is helpful in a server with less free memory.
 Current version of POP is POP3 .
 ADVANTAGES:
 Emails are downloaded to the user`s computer.
 opening attachments is quick and easy as they are
already
downloaded.
 Less server storage space required all emails are stored on local
machine.
 Storage capacity of emails limited by the size of your hard disk.
 very popular, easy to configure and use.

DISADVANTAGES:
 Emails cannot be accessed from other machines(unless configured
to do so).
 Email folders can become corrupted, potentially losing the entire
mailbox at once.
 IMAP(Internet Mail Access Protocol)
 This protocol is used while receiving an email.
 When one uses IMAP, the emails will be present in the
server and not get downloaded to the user`s mail box and
deleted from the server.
 This helps to have less memory used in the local
computer and server memory is increased.
 ADVANTAGES:
 Mail stored on remote server, i.e. accessible
from multiple different location.
 Internet connection needed to access mail.
 Mail is automatically backed up if server is
managed properly.

 DISADVANTAGES:
 The main disadvantage of the IMAP protocols is that
it is mandatory to have an internet connection on
all the time to read/reply and search the message.
 SMTP is a push Protocol and IMAP and POP are pull protocols

1. An IP packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as 01000010. What is the
version and header length?

The first 4-bits show the version i.e. 0100 -> version 4.
The right 4-bits multiplied by 4 is the header length (0010=2).
2 x 4 = 8.
 WWW
• The World Wide Web is the universe of network-
accessible information.
• In simple terms, The World Wide Web is a way of
exchanging information between computers on the
Internet.
• The World Wide Web is based on several different
Technologies : Web browsers, Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP).
 Features of WWW
• HyperText Information System
• Cross-Platform
• Distributed
• Open Standards and Open Source
• Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface
for many services
• Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.
 Components of WWW
• There are 5 Components of WWW:
1.Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as
system for resources on web.
2.HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies
communication of browser and server.
3.Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): It Defines
structure, organisation and content of webpage.
4.Web Server : A web server is computer software
and underlying hardware that accepts requests via
HTTP, the network protocol created to distribute
web pages.
 Components of WWW
5. Web Browser : A web browser (commonly
referred to as a browser or internet browser).
• It is an application software for accessing the
World Wide Web.
• When a user requests a web page from a
particular website, the web browser retrieves the
necessary content from a web server and then
displays the page on the user's device.
WWW Architecture
 Working of WWW
• The World Wide Web is based on several different
technologies :
1. Web browser.
2. Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
1. Web browser : It is used to access webpages.
Web browsers can be defined as programs which
display text, data, pictures, animation and video on
the Internet.
2.HTML : Hyperlinked resources on the World
Wide Web can be accessed using software
interface provided by Web browsers.
3.HTTP : It can be used for several tasks
including : searches, mailing, transferring files,
and much more. Some of the commonly used
browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini,
Google Chrome.
• Online Forms
• Shopping Carts
• Word Processors
• Spreadsheets
• Video and Photo Editing
• File Conversion
• File Scanning
• E-mail programs such as Gmail and others.
 SNMP
• Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP)
is an application–layer protocol defined by the

• SNMP is one of the widely accepted network

protocols to manage and monitor network
elements.
SNMP consists of
• SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol.
• SMTP is a set of communication guidelines
that allow software to transmit an
electronic mail over the internet is called
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• It is a program used for sending messages to
other computer users based on e-mail
addresses.
• It provides a mail exchange between users on the
same or different computers, and it also
supports:
1. It can send a single message to one or more
recipients.
2. Sending message can include text, voice, video
or graphics.
3. It can also send the messages on networks
outside the internet.
4. The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up
communication rules between servers.
• It have the following Working Functionalities
:
1. Composition of Mail
2. Submission of Mail
3. Delivery of Mail
4. Receipt and Processing of Mail
5. Access and Retrieval of Mail
 ADVANTAGES:
 SMTP provides the simplest form of communicating
through email message between various computers
in a particular network.
 Since SMTP is developed from a simple platform ,
email messages may be sent easily and quickly.
 SMTP also offers reliability in terms of outgoing
email messages.
DISADVANTAGES:
 The main drawback of sending through an SMTP
server is that it is insecure, it can be easily hacked.
 Another disadvantage is the server limitation.