RESEARCH

STATISTICS
REPORT
Presented by Group 2
 OUTLINES
• Purpose of Sampling

• Stages in the selection of sample

• Probability Sampling

• Non-probability Sampling

• Ethical Considerations in Data Collection

• Data Collection Tools, Techniques and Steps of

Data Collection
PURPOSE OF SAMPLING SAMPLING PROCEDURE
To gather data about Is a process in research
that involves selecting a
the population in
subset of individuals from a
order to make an population to estimate the
inference that can be characteristics of the entire
generalized to the population. The procedure
helps to collect data
population.
efficiently, especially when
it's impractical to study an
entire population.
 STAGES IN 1.Define the target population
SELECTION OF A
SAMPLE 2.Select a sampling frame
3.Determine if a probability or
nonprobability sampling
method will be chosen
4.Plan procedure for selecting
sampling units
5.Determine sample size
6.Select actual sampling units
7.Conduct fieldwork
 SELECTING
RANDOM
SAMPLES
• Known as probability sampling
• Best method to achieve a representative sample
• Four types:
a. Simple Random Sampling
b. Stratified Random Sampling
c. Cluster Sampling
d. Systematic Sampling
SIMPLE RANDOM
SAMPLING
Selecting subjects so that all members of a population have an
equal and independent chance of being selected
• Advantages
⚬ Easy to conduct
⚬ High probability of achieving a representative sample
⚬ Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures
• Disadvantages
⚬ Identification of all members of the population can be
difficult
⚬ Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult
SIMPLE RANDOM
SAMPLING
• Selection process
⚬ Identify and define the population
⚬ Determine the desired sample size
⚬ List all members of the population
⚬ Assign all members on the list of consecutive
number
⚬ Select a arbitrary starting point of a table of
random numbers and read the appropriate
number of digits
 STRATIFIED
RANDOM
SAMPLING
• The population is divided into two or
more groups called strata, according
to some criterion, such as geographic
location, grade level, age or income
and subsamples are randomly
selected from each strata.
 STRATIFIED
RANDOM
SAMPLING
• Advantages
⚬ More accurate sample
⚬ Can be used for both proportional and non-
proportional samples
⚬ Representation of subgroups in the sample
• Disadvantages
⚬ Identification of all members of the population
can be difficult
⚬ Identifying members of all subgroups can be
 STRATIFIED
RANDOM
SAMPLING
• Selection process
⚬ Identifying and define the population
⚬ Determine the desired sample size
⚬ Identify the variable and subgroups for which
you want to guarantee appropriate
representation
⚬ Classify all members of the population as
members of one of the identified subgroups
• Applicable for Quantitative research
STRATIFIED
RANDOM
SAMPLING
 CLUSTER
SAMPLING
• The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not
individuals, within the defined population sharing similar
characteristics
• Clusters are locations within which an intact group of
members of the population can be found
⚬ Examples
￭ Neighborhoods
￭ School districts
￭ Schools
￭ Classrooms
 CLUSTER
SAMPLING
• Advantages
⚬ Very useful when populations are large and
spread over a large geographic region
⚬ Convenient and expedient
⚬ Do not need the names of everyone in the
population
• Disadvantages
⚬ Representation is likely to become an issue
 CLUSTER
SAMPLING
• Selection Process
⚬ Identify and define the population
⚬ Determine the desired sample size
⚬ Identify and define a logical cluster
⚬ List all clusters that make up the population of clusters
⚬ Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the
sample size by the estimated size of a cluster
⚬ Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters
⚬ Include in the study of all individuals in aeach selected
cluster
 CLUSTER
SAMPLING
 SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING
• Selecting every Kth subject from a list of the
members of the population
• Advantage
⚬ Very easily done
• Disadvantages
⚬ subgroups
⚬ Some members of the population don’t
have an equal chance of being included
 SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING
• Selection Process
⚬ Identify and define the population
⚬ Determine the desired sample size
⚬ Obtain a list of the population
⚬ Determine what K is equal to, by dividing the
size of the population by the desired sample
size
⚬ Start at some random place in the population
list
SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING
 SAMPLE SIZE
• According to Uma Sekaran in Research
Method for Business 4th Edition, Roscoe
(1975) proposed the rules of thumb for
determining sample size where sample
size larger than 30 and less than 500 are
appropriate for most research, and the
minimum size of sample should be 30% of
the population.
 NON-
PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
• refers to sampling techniques where not
all individuals or units have a known or
equal chance of being selected. This
method is often used when the research
doesn't aim for generalizability or when
probability sampling is not feasible due to
constraints like time, cost, or population
 NON-
PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
1.Convenience sampling
2.Purposive sampling
3.Quota sampling
4.Snowball sampling
 CONVENIENCE
SAMPLING
• The process of including whoever
happens to be available at the time
... called “accidental” or “haphazard”
sampling
• Applicable for Qualitative and Exploratory
Quantitative research
CONVENIENCE
SAMPLING
• Disadvantage
⚬ difficult in
determining how
much of the effect
(dependent
variable) results
from the cause
(independent
 PURPOSIVE
SAMPLING
• The process whereby the researcher
selects a sample based on
experience or knowledge of the
group to be sampled
... called “judgmental” sampling
• Applicable for Qualitative research
PURPOSIVE
SAMPLING
• Disadvantage
⚬ Potential for
inaccuracy in the
researcher’s criteria
 QUOTA
SAMPLING
• The process whereby a researcher
gathers data from individuals
possessing identified characteristics
and quotas
• Applicable for Quantitative research,
especially in market research, but can
be used in Qualitative research as well.
 QUOTA
SAMPLING
• Disadvantage
... people who are
less accessible (more
difficult to contact,
more reluctant to
participate)
 SNOWBALL
SAMPLING
• It is when you don’t know the best
people to study because of the
unfamiliarity of the topic or the
complexity of events. So you ask
participants during interviews to
suggest other individuals to be sampled
• Applicable for Qualitative research
SNOWBALL
SAMPLING
 ETHICAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN
DATA
• It is the researcher’s ethicalCOLLECTION
responsibility to safeguard the story teller by
maintaining the understood purpose of the research
• The relationship should be based on trust between the researcher and
participants
• Inform participants of the purpose of the study
• Being respectful of the research site, reciprocity, using ethical interview
practices, maintaining privacy and cooperating with participants.
• Patton (2002) offered a checklist of general ethical issues to consider,
such as:
⚬ reciprocity
⚬ assessment of risk
⚬ confidentiality
⚬ informed consent
• Qualitative researchers must be
aware of the potential for their
own emotional turmoil in
processing information
• During interview process,
participants may disclose
sensitive and potentially
distressing information in the
course of the interview
DATA COLLECTION
TOOLS,
TECHNIQUES AND
STEPS OF DATA
COLLECTION
 DATA AND DATA
COLLECTION
• Data are units of information, often
numeric that are collected through
observation.
• Data collection is the process by which
the researcher collect the information
needed to answer the research
problems.
 TYPES OF
DATA
1. By nature
a. Qualitative
b. Quantitative
2.By purpose of collection
a. Primary
b. Secondary
3.Sources of data/ Origin of
data
 PRIMARY DATA
• The data collected for the first time are called
primary data
• The methods mostly used in collecting primary data
are survey, observation, and experiment.
• Generally, all these methods are not used in a same
project, because they have both good and bad
aspects.
• The question which method of primary data
collection should be selected depends on the
nature, time and cost
 SECONDARY
DATA
• The data used once are called
secondary data
• It becomes much easier to collect
secondary data than the primary
ones
• Secondary data can be collected
from several sources
 QUALITATIVE
DATA
• Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical descriptive or nominal in
nature.
This means the data collected are in the form of words and
sentences.
• Often, such data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective
perceptions of something
• Qualitative approaches aim to address the “how” and “why” of a
program and tend to use unstructured methods of data collection to
fully explore the topic.
• Qualitative questions are open-ended
• Qualitative methods include focus group, group discussions and
interviews.
 QUANTITATIVE
DATA
• Quantitative data is a numerical in nature and can be
mathematically computed,
• Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be
classified as nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scale
• Quantitative approaches address the “what” of the program.
• Quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are
cheaper to implement, are standardized so comparisons can
be easily made and the size of the effect can usually be
measured.
• Quantitative approaches however are limited in their capacity
for the investigation and explanation of similarities and
 REQUIREMENTS OF DATA
FOR THE RESEARCHER
• Purpose/Objectives
• Indicator Varibles
⚬ Data
￭ Techniques and Tools
 TOOLS PREPARATION
FOR DATA COLLECTION
• Data collected on tools like Questionnaire or
schedules
• Objectives of the study to be kept in mind
• Type of participants, nature of information
and method of analysis to keep in mind
• List of variables to be prepared
• Logical sequencing has to adopted
 DATA COLLECTION
TECHNIQUES
• Data collection techniques allow us to
systematically collect information about our
objects of study (people, objects, phenomena)
and about the settings in which they occur
• In the collection of data we have to be
systematic
• If data are collected haphazardly, it will be
difficult to answer our research questions in a
 VARIOUS DATA COLLECTION
TECHNIQUES CAN BE USED
SUCH AS:
• Using available information
• Observing
• Interviewing (face-to-face)
• Administering written questionnaires
• Focus group discussions
• Social mapping
 QUESTIONNAIRE
• A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set
of questions or other types of prompts that aims to collect
information from a respondent
• Often a questionnaire used both open and closed questions to
collect data
• The data collected from a data collection questionnaire can be
both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature.
• A verbatim response refers to what an interviewer records as
an answer to an open-ended question when writing down the
exact words spoken by the respondent which helps to give the
qualitative information on research
 OBSERVATION
• Observation method of information gathering is used
by monitoring participants in a specific situations or
environment as a given time and day.
• Basically, researchers observe the behavior of the
surrounding environments or people that are being
studied
• This type of study can be:
⚬ Controlled
⚬ Natural
⚬ Participant
 OBSERVATION
• Controlled observation is when the
researcher uses a standardized procedure
of observing participants or the
environment
• Natural observation is when the
participants are being observed in their
natural conditions
• Participants observation is where the
 OBSERVATION
CHECKLIST
• An observation checklist is a set of
questions that evaluate the performance
and behavior of teachers and students in a
classroom setting.
• Observation checklists assist an observer to
identify skill gaps and problem areas to
further improve teaching strategies,
classroom settings, and student learning
 INTERVIEW
• Interview is a qualitative method of data collection
whose results are based on intensive engagement
with respondents about a particular study
• Usually interviews are used in order to collect in-
depth responses from the professionals being
interviewed
• Interview can be structured (formal), semi-
structured or unstructured (informal), In essence, an
interview method of data collection can be
 KEY INFORMANT
INTERVIEWS
• Key informant interviews are qualitative in-
depth interviews with people who knows
what is going on in the community
• The purpose of key informant interviews is
to collect information from a wide range of
people including community leaders,
professionals, or residents who have first
hand knowledge about the community.
 HOW TO CONDUCT THE KEY
INFORMANTS INTERVIEW
• Formulate study questions
• Prepare a short interview guide
• Select key informants
• Conduct interviews
• Take adequate notes
• Analyse Interview data
• Check for reliability and validy
 SURVEY
• A survey is a research method used for collecting
data from a predefined group of respondents to
gain information and insights into various topics
of interest
• They can have multiple purposes, and
researchers can conduct it in many ways
depending on the methodology chosen and the
study’s goal
• The process involves asking people for
 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

• A focus group discussion involves gathering people from

similar backgrounds or experiences together to discuss a
specific topic of interest
• A focus group is a group of interview of approximately six
to twelve people who share similar characteristics or
common interests
• Focus group are a qualitative data collection method
“perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, opinios or ideas”,
meaning that the data is descriptive and cannot be
measured numerically.
 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

• The common and simplest method for selecting

participants for focus group is called
“purposive” or “convenience” sampling
• This means that you select those members of
the community who you think will provide you
with the best information
 STEPS OF CONDUCTING
FOCUS GROUP
DISCUSSION
1.Define the Purpose
2.Select the Participants and Leader
3.Manage the Atmosphere
4.Develop the Questions
5.Conduct the Session
6.Analyse the Results
 SOCIAL MAPPING
• Social mapping is a visual method of showing
the relative location of households and the
distribution of different people together with the
social structure, groups, and organizations of an
area
• Social mapping is making visible what has been
invisible for a very long time (i.e the cultural and
indigenous landscapes). It helps us understand
histories and our sense of connection with them,
 STEPS TO DATA
COLLECTION
1.Clarify your data collection goals
2.Develop operational definitions and
procedures
3.Validate the measurement system
4.Begin data collection
5.Continue improving measurement system
and ensure people are following the data
 THE GATHER STEPS
• G-Greet the clients in an open, respectful
manner
• A-Ask clients about themselves and pay
attention to what clients express
• T-Tell clients about the objectives of the
interview
• H-Help clients to choose their answer and give
their opinion
• E-Explain fully about the survey and its benefits
 REFERENCE

Creswell, J., W. (2012) Educational research: Planning,

Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative
Research, 4th ed.
Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative Research
and Evaluating Methods. Thousand Oaks,
CA
Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019).
Research Methods for Business Students (8th
Edition).
Thank You
For your attention