Unit – I

Underwater fiber Optics Communication

Ferial El-Hawary, The Ocean Engineering Handbook, First Edition,

CRC Press, 2001 Sec 5.4
& websites.
Basics of Fiber Optics Communication

 The optical spectrum is

broadly divided into
three spectral regions:
ultraviolet (UV) for
λ<400nm,
visible (VIS) λ=400–
700nm
 Optical&communication
infrared (lR)using
for
λ>700nm.
fibers is performed in the
frequency range of 1 THz to
1000 THz.
O-Band E-Band S-Band C-Band L-Band U-Band

1260 1360 1460 1530 1565 1625 1675

Wavelength (nm)
Original band (O-band): 1260 to 1360 nm
Region originally used for first single-mode fibers
Extended band (E-band): 1360 to 1460 nm
1st window 2nd window 3rd window 4th window Operation extends into the high-loss water-peak region
Short band (S-band): 1460 to 1530 nm (shorter than C-band)
Conventional band (C-band): 1530 to 1565 nm (EDFA region)
Long band (L-band): 1565 to 1625 nm (longer than C-band)
Ultra-long band (U-band): 1625 to 1675 nm
Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication
(compared to conventional copper / RF communications)
1. Enormous potential bandwidth -  30 THz
2. Small size and weight – Human hair size, lighter
3. Electrical isolation – No arcing or spark hazard or short circuit, cannot cause fires
4. Immunity to interference and crosstalk – Free from EMI, RFI, switching transients
5. Signal security – Cannot acquire optical signal non-invasively, No eavesdropping
6. Low transmission loss - < 0.15 dB / km
7. Ruggedness and Flexibility – high tensile strength & can be bent to store,
transport, handle and install
8. System reliability & Ease of maintenance – Less optical repeaters required,
20 -30 yrs.
9. Potential low cost

Optical Fiber Communication is the method of communication in which

signal is transmitted in the form of light and optical fiber is used as a
medium of transmitting those light signal from one place to another.
 Structure of optical Fiber
 An optical fiber is a hair thin cylindrical fiber of glass or any transparent dielectric
medium.
 The fiber which are used for optical communication are waveguides made of
transparent dielectrics. Its function is to guide visible and infrared light over long
distances. Core- central tube of very thin size made up of
optically transparent dielectric medium and
carries the light form transmitter to receiver.
Core diameter - 5m to 100 m.
Cladding- outer optical material surrounding
the core having reflecting index lower than
core. It helps to keep the light within the
core throughout the phenomena of total
internal reflection.
Buffer Coating - plastic coating that provides
mechanical protection to the fiber. Diameter
of fiber after coating is 250-300um.
Types of Optical Fibers & Light Propagation

MADI : Multichannel Audio Digital Interface ENG crew: Electric News Gathering –A digital filming
 Ray Theory of Light Propagation

When Φ1 > Φc ,total internal reflection takes place.

Using Snell’s law, At Φ1 = Φc , n1 sin Φc = n2 sin 90˚ and
n1 sin Φ1 = n2 sin Φ2,
since sin 90˚ = 1, CRITICAL ANGLE OF INCIDENCE Φ C :
where sin Φc = n2 / n1 and If the angle of incidence Φ 1 is increased, an angle will eventually be reached
Φ1 – angle of incidence and
hence Φc=sin-1(n2/n1) where the light ray in air is parallel to the glass surface. This angle is known
Φ2 – angle of refraction
as critical angle of incidence Φ c.
n sinθmax = n1 sin (90º – Φc)
n sinθmax = n1 cos Φc = n1√1 – sin2 Φc = n1 √1 – n22/n12
= n1 √(n12 – n22) / n12
NA may also be defined as:
n sinθmax = √n12– n22 relative refractive index difference Δ
n2 Numerical aperture is defined as between core & cladding is
n n1
NA = n sinθ0max = √n12– n22
When n =1, and so
Thus those rays having entrance angles θa< θmax are said to be totally
NA defines the light collection ability of the internally reflected at the core cladding interface and the angle θa is called
optical fiber.
acceptance angle.
 Skew rays

γ is the angle between the core radius and the projection

of the ray onto a plane normal to the core axis

* Acceptance angle of skew rates is larger than the acceptance

angle of meridional rays.
* Most rays entering the core are skew rays. where as represents the
* A large portion of the number of skew rays becomes leaky rays. acceptance angle for skew rays
given by
* Leaky rays, although they are predicted to be totally reflected, they
are partially refracted due the curved shape of the fiber boundary.
Solved problems
A multimode step-index fiber has a core index
n1 = 1.480 and an index difference ∆ = 0.01.
Find the numerical aperture of the fiber.
Using
The numerical aperture for this fiber is
NA = 1.428 (0.02) = 0.21.
The cutoff wavelength λcutoff specifies the smallest wavelength
for which all fiber modes except the fundamental mode are cut
off; i.e., the fiber transmits light in a single mode only for those
wavelengths that are greater than λcutoff.
For a single mode fiber, x NA =

For a single mode fiber, Vc = 2.405

 OFC Block Diagram The fiber Optic Flylead (or pigtail) is a fiber optic cable capped at either end
with connectors that allow it to be rapidly and conveniently connected to an
optical switch or other telecommunication equipment.

1.Transmitter: An electric signal is applied to the optical transmitter. The

optical transmitter consists of driver circuit, light source and fiber flylead.
1. Driver circuit drives the light source.
2. Light source converts electrical signal to optical signal.
3. Fiber flylead is used to connect optical signal to optical fiber.
2.Transmission channel: It consists of a cable that provides mechanical
and environmental protection to the optical fibers contained inside. Each
optical fiber acts as an individual channel.
1. Optical splice is used to permanently join two individual
optical fibers.
2. Optical connector is for temporary non-fixed joints between
two individual optical fibers.
3. Optical coupler or splitter provides signal to other devices.
4. Repeater converts the optical signal into electrical signal
using optical receiver and passes it to electronic circuit where
it is reshaped and amplified as it gets attenuated and
distorted with increasing distance because of scattering,
absorption and dispersion in waveguides, and this signal is
then again converted into optical signal by the optical
transmitter.

3. Receiver: Optical signal is applied to the optical receiver. It consists of photo detector, amplifier and signal restorer.
1. Photo detector converts the optical signal to electrical signal.
2. Signal restorers and amplifiers are used to improve signal to noise ratio of the signal as there are chances
of noise to be introduced in the signal due to the use of photo detectors.
•For short distance communication only main elements are required.
•Source- LED, Fiber- Multimode step index fiber and Detector- PIN detector
•For long distance communication along with the main elements there is need for couplers, beam splitters, repeaters,
optical amplifiers.
•Source- LASER diode, Fiber- single mode fiber and Detector- Avalanche photo diode (APD).
Wavelength (nm)
 Effects on Fiber Bending
Fibers are subjected to two types of bends:
(1) Macroscopic bends that have radii
which are large compared with the fiber
diameter, for example, those that occur
when a fiber cable turns a corner, i.e., a
significant amount of bending above a  For slight bends, the excess optical power loss due to macroscopic
critical value of curvature. bending is extremely small and is essentially unobservable.
* Bending in which complete fiber undergoes bends which  As the radius of curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially
cause certain modes not to get reflected and therefore causes until at a certain critical bend radius the curvature loss becomes
loss through radiation out of cladding. observable.
(2) Random microscopic bends (small scale bends) of the fiber  If the bend radius is made a bit smaller once this threshold has been
axis that can arise when fibers are incorporated into cables. reached, the losses suddenly become extremely large.
 Bending losses depend on wavelength.
* Since the microscopic bending loss is determined in the
manufacturing process, the user has little control over the
degree of loss resulting from them.
* When the core or cladding is exerted by a slight force at its
surface, it causes light to escape out of cladding as evanescent
field and gets lost.

* A bend-insensitive fiber is having a moderately higher numerical aperture than

a standard single-mode fiber. Increasing the NA reduces the sensitivity of the
Effects on Fiber Bending
Contd…
Critical Radius of Curvature
* Optical fibers suffer radiation losses at bends or curves on their paths. This is due to the energy in the
evanescent field at the bend exceeding the velocity of light in the cladding and hence the guidance mechanism
is inhibited, which causes light energy to be radiated from the fiber.
* The loss can generally be represented by a radiation attenuation coefficient
where R is the radius of curvature of the fiber bend and C1, C2 are constants which are
independent of R.
* Large bending losses tend to occur in multimode fibers at a critical radius of curvature Rc can
be computed using

* Macro-bending losses may be reduced by:

(a) designing fibers with large relative refractive index differences
(b) operating at the shortest possible wavelength.
• The critical radius of curvature for a single-mode fiber Rcs can be estimated as
where λc is the cutoff wavelength for the single-mode fiber.
* It is essential that sharp bends, with a radius of curvature approaching the critical radius, are
Solved problem Effects of Fiber Bend Contd…
(1). The fraction of total propagated energy that
will be immediately lost is approximately equal to

where R is the radius of curvature of fiber axis in

millimeters,  =2 for Parabolic index profile for
(a)
GI fiber.
Because of its high bandwidth and large core, the GI fiber
has become quite popular in undersea tether & tow cables.

(2) At a bend radius of 40 mm, additional optical attenuation is

(b) almost negligible. A relatively gentle microbend can cause a very
large local attenuation increase.
Cut-off Wavelength for a SMF is given by: A single microbend can cause an immediate attenuation loss of
approximately where H is displacement
Induced by the
Microbend, K  1,
b is radius of the fiber cladding, E/E =
 Effects of Fiber Bend Contd…
 The effect of a fiber bend will be to convert the highest order propagation modes into
modes that leave the fiber.
Methods employed to reduce the impact of Fiber Bending:
1. Use single-mode optical fibers. In addition to microbend protection, these fibers will
increase system bandwidth by one or two orders of magnitude (compared to a GI fiber).
2. Increase the radius of fiber curvature in the cable. As a rule of thumb, this radius should
never be less than 50 mm.
3. Float the fiber within a hydrostatic cable environment, so that it is not forced to make high
pressure contacts with adjacent surfaces.
4. Make these adjacent surfaces as smooth as possible. For example, a conductor neighbor
should contain small wires and the specification for assembly of its jacket should require a
pressure extrusion. If the fiber is forced to conform to this surface, its axis may be repeatedly
bent and extremely high excess losses can result.
5. Increase the thickness of the fiber buffer to isolate the fiber from external bending forces.
6. Encase the optical fiber in a hard protective metal tube. It serves for anti-microbending and
can seal the fiber inside a hydrostatic environment to serve as a dedicated conductor and as a
major strength element in the cable.
 Standard FO Connectors
What is an optical fiber connector? What is its function? How does it work?
 An optical fiber connector is a flexible device that connects fiber cables requiring a quick connection
and disconnection. Optical fibers terminate fiber-optic connections to fiber equipment or join two fiber
connections without splicing.
 The connectors mechanically couple and align the cores of fibers so light can pass.
 Better connectors lose very little light due to reflection or misalignment of the fibers.
 These connectors hold the fiber optic cables together inside the ferrule to attach them to the other side
of the cables. Ferrules are the connector end pieces that include the method of connecting and securing
the termination. Some ferrules will plug into a mating adapter and screw to hold two portions together.
Three Components of a SC-type Optical Fiber Connector
(1) Ferrule (2), Connector Body (3) Coupling Mechanism.
​Ferrule: this is a thin ceramic (or metal / plastic) cylindrical
structure that actually the glass fiber. It has a hollowed-out
center that forms a tight grip on one strand of fiber.
Connector Body: this is a plastic or metal structure that
holds the ferrule and attaches to the jacket and strengthens
members of the fiber cable itself.
Coupling Mechanism: this is a part of the connector body
that holds the connector in place when it gets attached to
another device. It may be a latch clip, a bayonet-style nut,
 Standard FO Connectors Contd…
Types of FO Connectors
Fiber cable connector types can be categorized according to different standards
like the utilization, fiber count, fiber mode, transmission method, transmission
media, the boot length, the polishing type and the termination way, etc.
Straight Tip (ST) Connectors
The Straight Tip (ST) design has a 2.5mm
ferrule, features a spring-loaded, half-turn
bayonet-style lock that makes it quick and
easy to attach and detach. Typically used
with multimode fiber optic cables and find
a lot of usage in legacy networks.
Ferrule Core (FC) Connectors
FC connectors are built with a ceramic
ferrule with a stainless steel screw
mechanism for attachment. These are
designed to provide a much more robust
connection that is almost immune to
accidental removal, but not suited to
tighter to tighter spaces. Commonly used
in networks designed to transmit consistent
information, such as video streams.
 Standard FO Connectors Contd…
Multi-Position Connectors (MPO / MTP)
MPO connectors are simplex fiber connector types with a push/pull latch system that locks them into place. MPO connectors
are more commonly marketed toward less demanding applications. The MTP connector is a high performance MPO connector
with multiple engineered product enhancements to improve optical and mechanical performance when compared to generic
MPO connectors. Both fiber connector types work with single mode and multimode cables – the ferrule is slightly angled on
single mode cables the connector combines up to 24 glass fibers within a single rectangular ferrule.
MT-RJ Connectors
Mechanical Transfer-Registered Jack (MTRJ) connectors are duplex connectors. They use pins for alignment and come in both
male and female guises. It has a plastic body with a tubular locking mechanism to hold it in place once connected. They are one
of the least common fiber connector types used today, though still see some use in legacy systems and networks. With a small
ferrule, MTRJ connectors have seen use in the past in more compact patch panels and cabinets, and have mostly been used with
multimode cables. PC: Physical Contact. The ferrule is beveled and finished in a plain surface. This
Connector Types based on Ferrule Polishing avoids empty spaces between the ferrules of the connectors being coupled, and
achieves insertion losses among -30 dB and -40 dB. Its use is highly reduced.
UPC: Ultra Physical contact. Return losses to a margin between -40 and -55 dB
The current trend is using it in dead lines to allow operators to perform networks
tests for example by using an OTDR.
APC: Angled Physical Contact. The ferrule ends in a plain, 8 degree angled
surface making it the connector that achieves a best optical link because it cuts
down the return losses up the -60 dB thus allowing increasing the number of users
in single mode fibers. With low manufacturing costs, APC has become the most
used polishing type.
 Requirements of a Good Connector Splice versus Connector
•Coupling loss. The connector assembly must maintain stringent alignment tolerances to ensure low
mating losses. The losses should be around 2 to 5 percent (0.1 to 0.2 dB) and must not change
significantly during operation and after numerous connects and disconnects.
•Interchangeability. Connectors of the same type must be compatible from one manufacturer to
another.
•Ease of assembly. A service technician should be able to install the connector in a field environment,
that is, in a location other than the connector attachment factory.
•Low environmental sensitivity. Conditions such as temperature, dust, and moisture should have a
small effect on connector loss variations.
•Low cost and reliable construction. The connector must have a precision suitable to the application,
but it must be reliable and its cost must not be a major factor in the system.
•Ease of connection. Except for certain unique applications, one should be able to mate and
disconnect
S. No. the connector
Splice simply and byConnector
hand. S. No. Splice Connector

1 Permanent Joint Semi- permanent joint 8 Splicing can be used to mix several Connector can be used to connect equal
2 Skilled technician required Skilled technician not required different types of fiber optic cables, for number of cables.
instance, connecting a 48-fiber cable to
3 Low optical losses at the joint High optical losses at the joint
six 8-fiber cables

4 High reliability Low reliability 9 Optical insertion loss using splicing is Optical insertion loss using connectors is
comparatively low higher
5 Joint is Small in size Large size
10 It is not so convenient when working Convenient in both indoor and outdoor
outdoor
6 Less back reflection (attenuation) of More back reflection of light
light 11 Time spending on the splicing assembly Easier to operate and more time-saving
7 Fiber end face is cleaved Fiber end face is polished can be huge. and money-saving without the need
of a splicer machine
 Cable Requirement for Underwater Application
Basic properties of optical fiber cables
1. Fiber optic cabling can support too high bandwidths in the range from 100 Mbps to 2 Gbps because light has a much greater
frequency than electricity.
2. The several nodes that a fiber optic can provide does not rely upon its length but on the hub(s) that linked cables.
3. Fiber optic cable is not concerned by EMI effects and can be used in locations where high voltages pass.
4. The value of fiber optic cable is more distinguished to twisted pair and co-axial.
5. The setup of fiber optic cables is complex and endless.
Quality Factors of UW Optical Cables
 Application. Underwater vision systems may require a fundamentally different type of cable than underwater lighting or
monitoring and research applications.
 Compliance. Ratings, agency listings, government certifications and environmental standards and 1,000 hour weatherometer
requirement.
 Features. Are the cables going to be used for signal, control, instrumentation or power or a combination of functions?
 Water type. Different options exist for salt, fresh, brackish, chemical-treated, waste, and potable water.
 Cable depth. Cable systems at greater depths require heavy-duty materials and pressure resistance.
 Flex. Cold bend, torsional, rolling, variable, bend, and continuous flex options exist for cables whose applications require
regular motion.
 Environment. Knowing whether a cable must function in an industrial pipe, ocean, or rocky riverbed
 Temperatures. From Arctic to high rating, cable systems are designed for specific temperatures ranges.
 Buoyancy. Special considerations must be taken when a cable is required to have a negative, neutral, or positive buoyancy.

✴Neutral Buoyancy - The object is neither sinking nor floating ✴Positive Buoyancy - The object is floating at the top of the surface
✴Negative Buoyancy - The object is sitting at the bottom of the body of water
 As of early 2023, we believe there are nearly 1.4
Submarine Fiber Optic Cables million kilometers of submarine cables in
 Subsea or submarine cables are fiber optic cables that connectglobally.
service countries across the world via cables laid on the
ocean floor. These cables are able to transmit huge amounts of data rapidly from one point to another.
 Cables are usually buried under the seabed near the shore for protection using ships carrying thousands of
kilometers of optical cable out to sea.
 Fiber optic cables generally comprise of the optical fibers that carry the information, which are then covered in
silicon gel, then sheathed in varying layers of plastic, steel wiring, copper, and nylon in order to provide
insulation to protect the signal and protect the cable from damage from wildlife, anchors and fishing or weather
and other natural events.
 Cables contain a number of repeaters / optical amplifiers to boost the signal along the length, roughly every 100
km. At each end, the cables reach a cable landing station, from where the data is routed to its final location.
 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM), a technology A cable ‘s approx. lifetime in the sea water is 25 years;
leaving a cable to deteriorate in the ocean long-term is
whereby multiple wavelengths – each operating at rates of hundreds harmful.
of gigabits per second – enable the information-carrying capacity of
a submarine cable to be maximized, up to 250 Tbps.
 Submarine line terminal equipment (SLTE) & power feed equipment (PFE)
of a submarine cable system are installed at the cable landing station.
 With subsea cables, international relations can affect where a cable is
laid and which companies are involved. As cable technology has
improved and costs have come down, remote countries that once would
have to rely on satellite or slower infrastructure are rapidly seeing a
Cables can carry far more data at far less cost than
Types of Fiber Optic Cables
Core
Type of Fiber Distance Description/
Diameter Advantages Disadvantages
Optic Cable Traveled Application
Size
Low bandwidth, which Industrial drives and generators,
limits the data rate to automotive. Best for short and rugged
Plastic cable A few meters 1mm Inexpensive
about 200 Mbps for a 50 applications. Typically not used for data
m link. transmission
Offers better Often referred to as PCS, it has a glass
Plastic-coated performance (silica) core and plastic cladding. Used for
A few meters 1 mm More expensive
silica cable than plastic research, medical, material processing,
cable etc.
Single-index Highest Allow for one data stream or mode.
Extremely Very narrow Most expensive and most
monomode bandwidths and Carries more bandwidth but in narrow
long distances core difficult to handle
fiber cable distance spectral width
Large
Can carry data The cable is designed for the LAN
Step-index diameter Cannot support the high
Short encoded with environment and light is typically
multimode core with bandwidth of single mode
distances multiple light generated with a LED (light-emitting
cable high fibers
sources diode).
dispersion
Graded-index Longer Reduced mode Multiple layers of glass that contain
Large Higher cost than step –
multimode distances than dispersion and dispersions enough to provide increases in
diameter index
cable step-index bandwidth cable distances.
 EM Coax Cable Versus Electro-Optic (E-O) Cables
Electromechanical Co-axial Cable Electro-Optic cable
1. The interlink between power and telemetry 1. The ability to separate power and telemetry
functions in an electromechanical coax cable functions allows a much greater freedom to
allows a limited set of options in choosing choose from among distinctly different
the geometry of that cable. cable geometries.
2. Conductor resistances and dielectric 2. A typical member of this cable design
thicknesses can be varied, but the basic shape family will contain several types and sizes
of the cable remains quite static. of power conductors.
 Types of N-Conductor E-O
Cable

3-Conductors:
 This cable design is intended for use with 3-phase power transfer. It allows considerable operating freedom for the
power system.
 The design can operate with a cable-return power circuit (unbalanced line). It is even possible to parallel the conductors
and operate the system with a seawater return.
 The optical fibers in the 3-conductor cable design are over-jacketed to a size that rounds out the core’s cylindrical cross-
section. This allows them to ride gently in the channels defined by the several conductors.
 This design is relatively inefficient in trading off power transfer versus strength. At the same time, it gives excellent
protection and strain relief to the electrical and optical conductors.
 Some 3-conductor designs incorporate a strength member (e.g., Kevlar-49) within the fiber over-jacket.
 Once the cable has been built, higher tensile modulus of the strengthened fiber unit, driven by the fact that cable strain is
determined by cable load acting on cable armor, causes the fiber unit to experience relatively high tension in E-O core.
 This forces the unit to press against local conductors while attempting to migrate to the cable center. Under such high
tensile and bearing stresses, the Kevlar yarns can also act as local micro-bending centers that increase fiber optical
attenuation.
 Types of N-Conductor E-O Cable
2-Conductors:
Fig. Contd…
shows a coax-like structure, with two electrical conductors
and one or more optical fibers. The associated ability to provide in-
cable circuit return for a power system can be a critical advantage.
For example, this design might be used for an E-O cable that must
be dipped into the sea from a helicopter. But the cable-return
capability is achieved at the cost of lower power-versus-strength
efficiency, since the requirement for two layers of insulation
reduces the cross-section that can be dedicated to load-bearing
structure. This coaxial E-O cable design is not recommended if
diameter, strength, and weight are critical system elements, unless
the use of a cable circuit return is a categorical imperative.
1-Conductor:
In both the 1- and 2-conductor designs, the optical fiber(s) are
contained within and protected by a closed and welded metal
tube. In the single-conductor design approach, this tube also
serves as the cable’s only electrical conductor, so that the power
circuit must be completed by a seawater return.
Single Conductor Cable Design Concepts
Centers of three design options for 1-conductor metal-tubed Optical fibers:
• The attenuation of the optical fiber in the formed and welded
tube will generally be less than the level claimed by the fiber
manufacturer.
• The single-conductor cable design operates with a seawater
circuit return which is a critical weakness of the single-
conductor concept.
• Some scientists employ grounding the shield conductor to
the armor of their deep-sea coax cables to make the circuit
 The shaded region in the centers of designs (1) and (2) is a return is through the armor. At best, less than 1% of system
void-filling gel that provides the optical fibers with a current will flow through the armor. The remainder will pass
hydrostatic environment. through the sea, through the painted hull of the ship and, by
 In design (3), the metal tube is given a thin elastomeric the most devious means, back to the system ground.
jacket. This layer serves as a bedding layer for the copper • It would be advised to operate the system with a dedicated,
conductors added to reduce and tune cable resistance. efficient (and known) seawater return!
 Any of these designs might contain only one optical fiber, In the 1- and 2-conductor designs, the metal tube
and that fiber might operate in a full-duplex mode. For lies parallel to the cable axis. This means that
example, telemetered data can move in one direction at one helical geometry cannot be used to provide the E-
wavelength while command signals flow in the other O conductor with strain relief. The conductor must
direction at a second wavelength. furnish whatever tensile compliance is needed to
avoid permanent strain at very high cable
Differences in 1-, 2- and 3-conductor cable handling should occurtension.
primarily as responses to new operational capabilities
Basic Design for Electro-Optic (E-O) Underwater Cable
 Major design requirements: cable strength, power transfer, and diameter
 Uniqueness: system bandwidth no longer plays a critical role in the design.
Design Analysis of an E-O Tether Cable
1. The design analysis begins with a cable diameter constraint, to ensure that the cable can operate from existing handling systems. (This analysis
evaluates cable performance at 7.94-, 9.53-, and 17.3-mm diameters)
2. A second constraint sets a minimum value for the power that must be delivered to system instrumentation. This limit is best expressed as a power-
length product (P-L), i.e., as a power P delivered to a payload through cable length L.
3. The P-L specification may be accompanied by a specified value of supply voltage or cable current. This constraint is often imposed for no
obvious reason and can have a very serious impact on cable strength/diameter trade-offs.
4. Other parameters include the number of fibers, requirements for strain relief, or even special constraints placed on the electrical power system.
For example:
(a). The need for optical and electronic simplicity at the ends of the cable might reject the use of full duplex telemetry, forcing the cable to contain
two or more optical fibers.
(b). The need for additional tensile strain relief might force the selection of a 3-conductor cable core due to its helical structure. (c). A propulsion
motor in the instrumentation package might demand 3-phase power.
5. An arbitrary initial value can be chosen for system supply voltage to calculate the cable electrical resistance to design values for conductor
dimensions, for insulation thickness and, finally, for the cross-section and overall diameter of the E-O core. To minimize electrical pinholes, the
dielectric might be specified to have a thickness greater than some minimum value.
6. The cable and core diameters define the annulus available for load-bearing armor so that, for reasonable values for the armor coverage and helix
angles, we can calculate cable strength, weight, payload capability, and ‘‘free length.”
7. If the conflict between strength and diameter is critical, then the supply voltage should be ‘‘optimized.” That is, supply voltage will be adjusted
until a value is found for which cable strength (or strength/weight) is a maximum.
8. Cable design tuning involves the use of nonlinear analysis techniques to adjust the conductor and armor helix angles for simultaneous stress and
Power-Diameter-Strength Optimization of E-O Cables
For 1-conductor cable

XLPE wire is a single-stranded copper conductor wire that is insulated

with hydronic tubing made of cross-linked polyethylene plastic (XLPE).
 Next-Generation Deep-Sea E-O Cables
3-phase, 3-fiber cable geometry is recommended for the ‘‘next generation” deep-sea E-O tether cable.
The primary reasons are:
 1. Its larger diameter (17.3 mm) gives some measure of relief from the normal inefficiency of this
design in trading off strength versus power-length product.
 2. The use of three optical fibers simplifies the telemetry system. One fiber can be dedicated to uplink
data, one to downlink commands and one kept in reserve for expansion or for use as a spare.
 3. The helical core geometry gives additional strain relief for both fibers and electrical conductors.
 4. The cable geometry is a relatively close match with the well tested and successful design of an earlier
E-O tow cable that was also built for operation under very high stress conditions.
Two basic types of deep-sea tethers:
Oceanographic:
A heavy duty cable will operate from the standard oceanographic winch.
It will support massive instrumentation packages, supplying them with at
least 10 kW through a 10-km length.
Hydrographic:
A smaller diameter cable will operate from a standard hydrographic
winch. It will deploy moderate-sized packages to ocean floor depths and
supply them with a few kW of power. It will contain one optical fiber-
operated full duplex, but can incorporate at least three fibers.
 Optical Slip Ring and its Applications
Need for Optical Slip Ring
 One disadvantage of fiber optic cables is their complex assembly. Interruptions quickly reduce the transmission rate and
speed of these data carriers, particularly when data transition is performed from a stationary to a rotating conductor.
These problems can be solved by using fiber optic slip ring.
 Fiber optical slip rings are commonly called fiber optical rotary joints (or, FORJ in short). Fiber Optic Rotary Joints (FORJ) is a
kind of rotary electrical connector that is made with the sole purpose of transmitting data signals between stationary and rotating
structures using fiber optic cables.
 FORJs are also used for transmission of combined power, optical signal and data.
Advantages of Fiber Optical Slip Rings
 Fiber optical slip rings are designed to meet the growing
demand for high frequency data transmission, as well as the
transmission of large volumes of video and data transmission.
 Fiber optic slip rings are available with both single mode or
multimode fibers. Single mode have high bandwidth at
wavelengths between 1,270 nm and 1,650 nm.
- Due to their small core size and numerical aperture, single
mode fiber optical slip rings must be precisely designed to
mechanical alignments.
- Multimode fibers have large cores and large numerical
apertures, allowing the propagation of multiple modes of optical
energy.
 Requirements of Fiber Optic Rotary Joint Construction of FORJ
 Ideal rotary feed-through element for fiber optic cables
Schematic Diagrams
 Minimal signal interference at the transition  FORJ typically consists of a stationary base and a rotating connector
 Robust aluminium housing with suitable protection
that is mounted on a shaft or other rotating structure.
 High rotation speed  Stationary base is typically made of metal or other durable material
 Wide temperature range and is attached to the equipment that is being used. The rotating
 Compact design connector is mounted on a shaft or other rotating structure and is
Disadvantages: connected to the stationary base via a fiber optic cable.
 Optical slip rings are typically more expensive and  The fiber optic cable is routed through the stationary base and the
complex to manufacture than traditional copper wire- rotating connector and is held in place by a series of mechanical
based slip rings. components and connectors.
 Signal degradation in the form of polarization,  In addition to fiber optic cables, they also typically include several
wavelength, return & insertion-related losses; other components, such as optical fibers, light-emitting diodes, and
 More challenging engineering for multiple channels (to photodiodes. These components are used to transmit and receive data
avoid crosstalk and other issues); signals through the fiber optic cable.
 Need for higher levels of protection when the slip ring  Overall, the design is focused on ensuring that the fiber optic cable is
held securely in place and can transmit data signals with high speeds
operates in harsh settings.
and bandwidths as the rotating connector rotates.
 Signals from the rotating sensors drive the light output of
a laser diode, which is focused by a microlens onto fibers
attached to a stator fixture. The fibers are distributed
around the periphery of the stator where the fibers form a
continuous layer without gaps.
Thus, these are used for transferring large amounts of data
and passing signals across rotating interfaces.
 Types of FORJ
1. (a) Single-mode Fiber FORJ
- Because of the smaller core sizes and numerical aperture, single mode FORJs must be designed with
very precise mechanical alignments. The alignment requirements are dependent on the operating
wavelength of the FORJ.
- Standard single mode FORJs are constructed for operation at 1,310 nm and 1,550 nm
wavelengths.
- These FORJs can be expected to perform to the coarse wavelength-division multiplexing (CWDM)
wavelengths, which include 18 wavelengths of 1,271 nm to 1,611 nm in 20 nm increments.
(b) Multimode Fiber FORJ
- Most multimode systems operate at 850 nm and 1,300 nm.
- Features: Ruggedized for harsh environments, Compact sizes, Variety of configuration options,
Custom designs
2. (a) Single Channel FORJ
(b) Multi-Channel FORJ
(c) Hybrid FORJ
Single channel (single-pass) and Multi-channel FORJs are available with single mode or multimode
fibers. They are passive and bidirectional, and allows the transfer of optical signals across rotational
interfaces. Hybrid FORJs combine an electrical slip ring with a fiber optic rotary joint, allowing electrical
power and optical signal transfer through a single rotational joint.
Applications of Optical Slip Ring
Earlier Applications: For test equipment:
Military RADAR systems, Aircraft and Missiles, Industrial Gas turbine research, Aircraft type testing, Centrifuge construction,
machinery, Medical Equipment and Communication Wind tunnels, Formula 1 engine and brake system testing, Medical
Systems, Scientific research Applications such as telescopes equipments
For defence: For RADAR:
Missile guidance systems and stabilised navigation Land based civil radar systems for air traffic control, Marine radar
platforms, Gimballed avionic instruments and gyroscopes, systems for Naval and Merchant vessel navigation, Land based
Missile launchers and weapon pedestals, Fighting vehicles, radar systems for military use such as target acquisition and
RBJ units (transferring signals and power from turret to hull) surveillance, Airborne radar for navigation
For aerospace: For industrial & commercial:
Airborne stabilised gun platforms and sights, FLIR systems, Mechanical handling, Robotics, Lifting equipment and cable
Submarine ICBM systems, Fixed wing aircraft and reelers, Hazardous area equipment, Satellite assemblies, Wind
helicopters for propeller and rotor de-icing systems tunnels, Sub-sea applications, Remote operated vehicles
For video & optical systems: For wind turbine:
Target acquisition systems, Surveillance, Outside broadcast Blade pitch control, Heating, Generator excitation
boom mounted cameras, Studio broadcast TV equipment,
CCTV, Gimballed electro-optics, HD video transmission
Plastics: Plastics such as polycarbonate and acetal for lightweight
Raw materials used in the construction of FORJ: and durable and are used for components such as fiber optic cable
Metals: Metals such as aluminum, brass and stainless steel for guides and connectors.
strong and durable and are used for the stationary base and Glass or plastic fibers: Fiber optic cables are made up of thin
the rotating connector. strands of glass or plastic fibers.
 An Insight into Fiber Optic Telemetry
Advantages of Fiber Optic Telemetry (Compared to Coaxial Telemetry)
1. If single-mode fiber optic technology is used, data rates of at least 1000 megabits/ second can be
achieved over an 8- to 10-km cable run. A single optical fiber can simultaneously send data in one
direction and command signals in the opposite direction, at a different wavelength. a single tiny (0.125-mm
diameter) optical fiber can support uplink telemetry at data rates that correspond to at least 10 channels of
high resolution TV.
2. The bandwidth can be almost independent of cable diameter. The effects of replacing three coaxial sub-
cable units (left) with three optical fibers (right) is shown in figure. The three power conductors are left
unchanged. Before the conversion, these power conductors were relatively ordinary and were used as void
fillers to firm up and round out the cross-section of the core. After the conversion, they became the
dominant elements in the core and the void-filling role in the now much smaller cable core has been
assumed by the optical fibers. Further diameter reduction must be obtained considering cable’s power and
strength functions.
3. In most E-O cables, the power and telemetry functions will be nearly
independent, so that they can be separately optimized. But, in the coax
design approach, optimization of one function (generally telemetry) is
likely to be very difficult over other system requirements.
University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System (UNOLS) is an organization of 59 academic institutions and National Laboratories
involved in oceanographic research and joined for the purpose of coordinating oceanographic ships' schedules and research facilities.
Block diagram of a Basic Fiber-Optic Telemetry System
The purpose of telemetric systems is to collect (acquire) data from various sensors, processing and
transmission of information about the monitored process or facility using various available transmission
media. Currently, the most commonly used transmission medium is single mode optical fiber.
Physical Receiving
* Telemetry is a field of telecommunications,
Parameter Data End dealing with techniques for sending measurement
Device, signals at a distance.
Auxiliary Presentation
of Results * The acquired signals are sent via wired (optical fiber)
Keystone
or wireless links to the point of activation and
processing of measurement data.
Encoder & Optical Receiver &
Transmitter Fiber Decoder
* At this point, operations on the signal are performed,
including: recording of measurement results,
Source Signal Signal Activation and calculation of statistical parameters (arithmetic mean,
Transmission Processing of
Measurement Data
standard deviation) and parameters related to accuracy
There are three types of telemetry systems: (uncertainty of measurement), preparation of
1. Single-channel system – enabling transmission of simultaneous measurement results (determination of the condition in
measurement of only one value of physical parameter serially.
2. Multi-channel system – enabling transmission of simultaneous which it is currently system – high or low state, as well
measurement of many values of physical parameters in parallell. as exceeding a certain value), generation of signals
3. Selective system – enabling transmission of simultaneous intended for regulation and warning signals, providing
measurement of several values of physical parameters serially
 Fiber-Optic Telemetry System Description
 The choice of the optical signal source depends on the transmission range and hence on the optical value of the output
power. This is determined by the sensitivity of the transmitter, defined as the ratio of the power introduced to the
transmission medium to the power drawn from the source.
 There are three types of transmitters:
1. Infrared diode for transmission in 850 nm, with a sensitivity of -20 dB, dedicated for MMF
2. Low power laser designed for transmission in 1310 nm or 1550 nm with a sensitivity of -10 dB for SMF
3. High power laser with a sensitivity of 0 dB for transmission in 1310 nm or in 1550 nm, for SMF.
 Functions that the light sources:
1. Providing a suitably high energy of radiation with a specific wavelength or wavelength range
2. Ensuring the stability of the light radiation intensity during transmission
3. Ensuring consistency in time and space, i.e. the coherence of radiation emitted by the source.
* The task of photodetectors is to receive the optical signal from the link and convert it to an electrical signal, usually of
a current nature.
* The characteristic parameter of a photoreceptor is its sensitivity which determines the minimum level of radiation
power that can be detected.
* Based on sensitivity, there are two receiver types : 1. low sensitivity receiver (photodiode) with a sensitivity of -28 dB,
2. high sensitivity receiver (phototransistor, Darlington phototransistor), with a sensitivity of -40 dB.
• For transmission in the optical system, light modulators are used to carry out the process of coding
information,. There are two techniques for modulating the optical signal
• : 1. internal (direct) – keying the light source (rarely used), 2. external (indirect) – using fiber optic