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PROTOCOLS AND
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MODELS

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THE RULES
Communications Fundamentals

Networks can vary in size and complexity. It is not enough to have a connection, devices must agree on “how” to
communicate.
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There are three elements to any communication:
• There will be a source (sender).
• There will be a destination (receiver).
• There will be a channel (media) that provides for the path of communications to occur.

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THE RULES
Communications Protocols

• All communications are governed by protocols.

• Protocols are the rules that communications will follow.
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• These rules will vary depending on the protocol.

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THE RULES
Rule Establishment

• Individuals must use established rules or agreements to govern the conversation.

• The first message is difficult to read because it is not formatted properly. The second shows the message
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properly formatted

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THE RULES
Rule Establishment

Protocols must account for the following requirements:

• An identified sender and receiver
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• Common language and grammar
• Speed and timing of delivery
• Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements

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THE RULES
Network Protocol Requirements

Common computer protocols must be in agreement and include the following requirements:
• Message encoding
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• Message formatting and encapsulation
• Message size
• Message timing
• Message delivery options

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THE RULES
Message Encoding

• Encoding is the process of converting information into another acceptable form for transmission.
• Decoding reverses this process to interpret the information.
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THE RULES
Message Formatting and Encapsulation

• When a message is sent, it must use a specific format or structure.

• Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that is used to deliver the message.
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THE RULES
Message Size

Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate format for the medium.

• Messages sent across the network are converted to bits
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• The bits are encoded into a pattern of light, sound, or electrical impulses.
• The destination host must decode the signals to interpret the message.

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THE RULES
Message Timing

Message timing includes the following:

Flow Control – Manages the rate of data transmission and defines how much information can be sent
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and the speed at which it can be delivered.
Response Timeout – Manages how long a device waits when it does not hear a reply from the
destination.
Access method - Determines when someone can send a message.
• There may be various rules governing issues like “collisions”. This is when more than one
device sends traffic at the same time and the messages become corrupt.
• Some protocols are proactive and attempt to prevent collisions; other protocols are reactive
and establish a recovery method after the collision occurs.

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THE RULES
Collisions
*A collision domain represents an area on a *Each port on a switch represents a separate
LAN on which collision domain. Also, all ports on a switch
there can be only one transmission at a time. belong to the same broadcast domain,
Because multiple devices can reside in the
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same collision domain, as is the case with
multiple PCs connected to a hub, if two
devices transmit at the same time, those
transmissions collide and have to be
retransmitted

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THE RULES
Collisions

Late Collisions A late collision refers to a collision that occurs after 512 bits of the
frame have been transmitted. Excessive cable lengths are the most
common cause of late collisions. Another common cause is duplex
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misconfiguration.

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THE RULES
Collisions
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THE RULES
Message Delivery Options

Message delivery may one of the following

methods:
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• Unicast – one to one communication
• Multicast – one to many, typically not all
• Broadcast – one to all

Note: Broadcasts are used in IPv4 networks, but

are not an option for IPv6. Later we will also see
“Anycast” as an additional delivery option for IPv6.

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THE RULES
A Note About the Node Icon

• Documents may use the node icon , typically a circle, to represent all devices.
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• The figure illustrates the use of the node icon for delivery options.

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PROTOCOLS
Network Protocol Overview

Network protocols define a common set

of rules.
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Protocol Type Description
• Can be implemented on devices in:
Network Communications enable two or more devices to
• Software communicate over one or more networks
• Hardware
Network Security secure data to provide authentication, data
• Both integrity, and data encryption
• Protocols have their own:
Routing enable routers to exchange route
• Function information, compare path information,
• Format and select best path
• Rules Service Discovery used for the automatic detection of devices
or services

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PROTOCOLS
Network Protocol Functions

• Devices use agreed-upon protocols to

communicate .
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• Protocols may have one or more
functions.
Function Description
Addressing Identifies sender and receiver
Reliability Provides guaranteed delivery
Flow Control Ensures data flows at an efficient rate
Sequencing Uniquely labels each transmitted segment of data
Error Detection Determines if data became corrupted during transmission
Application Interface Process-to-process communications between network applications

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PROTOCOLS
Protocol Interaction

• Networks require the use of several protocols.

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• Each protocol has its own function and format.

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Protocol Function
Hypertext Transfer  Governs the way a web server and a web client interact
Protocol (HTTP)  Defines content and format
Transmission Control  Manages the individual conversations
Protocol (TCP)  Provides guaranteed delivery
 Manages flow control
Internet Protocol (IP) Delivers messages globally from the sender to the receiver
Ethernet Delivers messages from one NIC to another NIC on the same Ethernet
Local Area Network (LAN)

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PROTOCOL SUITES
Network Protocol Suites

Protocols must be able to work with other

protocols.
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Protocol suite:
• A group of inter-related protocols
necessary to perform a communication
function
• Sets of rules that work together to help
solve a problem
The protocols are viewed in terms of layers:
• Higher Layers
• Lower Layers- concerned with moving
data and provide services to upper
layers

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PROTOCOL SUITES
Evolution of Protocol Suites

There are several protocol suites.

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• Internet Protocol Suite or TCP/IP- The most

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common protocol suite and maintained by
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
protocols- Developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and
the International Telecommunications Union
(ITU)
• AppleTalk- Proprietary suite release by Apple
Inc.
• Novell NetWare- Proprietary suite
developed by Novell Inc.

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PROTOCOL SUITES
TCP/IP Protocol Example

• TCP/IP protocols operate at the

application, transport, and
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internet layers.
• The most common network
access layer LAN protocols are
Ethernet and WLAN (wireless
LAN).

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PROTOCOL SUITES
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• TCP/IP is the protocol suite used

by the internet and includes
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many protocols.
• TCP/IP is:
• An open standard protocol
suite that is freely available to
the public and can be used by
any vendor
• A standards-based protocol
suite that is endorsed by the
networking industry and
approved by a standards
organization to ensure
interoperability

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PROTOCOL SUITES
TCP/IP Communication Process

• A web server encapsulating and sending a web • A client de-encapsulating the web page for the
page to a client. web browser
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STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS
Open Standards

Open standards encourage:

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• interoperability

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• competition
• innovation
Standards organizations are:
• vendor-neutral
• non-profit organizations
• established to develop and
promote the concept of open
standards.

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STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS
Internet Standards

• Internet Society (ISOC) - Promotes

the open development and
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evolution of internet
• Internet Architecture Board (IAB) -
Responsible for management and
development of internet standards
• Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) - Develops, updates, and
maintains internet and TCP/IP
technologies
• Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) -
Focused on long-term research
related to internet and TCP/IP
protocols

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STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS
Internet Standards

Standards organizations involved with

the development and support of TCP/IP
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• Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers
(ICANN) - Coordinates IP address
allocation, the management of
domain names, and assignment
of other information
• Internet Assigned Numbers
Authority (IANA) - Oversees and
manages IP address allocation,
domain name management, and
protocol identifiers for ICANN

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STANDARDS ORGANIZATIONS
Electronic and Communications Standards

• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, pronounced “I-triple-E”) - dedicated to creating
standards in power and energy, healthcare, telecommunications, and networking
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• Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) - develops standards relating to electrical wiring, connectors, and
the 19-inch racks used to mount networking equipment
• Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) - develops communication standards in radio
equipment, cellular towers, Voice over IP (VoIP) devices, satellite communications, and more
• International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) -
defines standards for video compression, Internet Protocol Television (IPTV), and broadband
communications, such as a digital subscriber line (DSL)

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REFERENCE MODELS
The Benefits of Using a Layered
Model

Complex concepts such as how a

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network operates can be difficult to
explain and understand. For this reason,
a layered model is used.
Two layered models describe network
operations:
• Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model
• TCP/IP Reference Model

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REFERENCE MODELS
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model

These are the benefits of using a layered model:

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• Assist in protocol design because protocols that operate at a specific layer have defined information

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that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above and below
• Foster competition because products from different vendors can work together
• Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers above and below
• Provide a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities

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REFERENCE MODELS
The OSI Reference Model
OSI Model Layer Description
7 - Application Contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.
Provides for common representation of the data transferred between application layer
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6 - Presentation
services.
5 - Session Provides services to the presentation layer and to manage data exchange.
Defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for individual
4 - Transport
communications.
3 - Network Provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network.

2 - Data Link Describes methods for exchanging data frames over a common media.

1 - Physical Describes the means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical connections.

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REFERENCE MODELS
The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP Model Layer Description

Application Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog control.
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Transport Supports communication between various devices across diverse networks.

Internet Determines the best path through the network.

Network Access Controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network.

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REFERENCE MODELS
OSI and TCP/IP Model Comparison

• The OSI model divides the network

access layer and the application layer of
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the TCP/IP model into multiple layers.
• The TCP/IP protocol suite does not
specify which protocols to use when
transmitting over a physical medium.
• OSI Layers 1 and 2 discuss the necessary
procedures to access the media and the
physical means to send data over a
network.

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DATA ENCAPSULATION
Segmenting Messages

Segmenting is the process of breaking up

messages into smaller units. Multiplexing is
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the processes of taking multiple streams of
segmented data and interleaving them
together.
Segmenting messages has two primary
benefits:
• Increases speed - Large amounts of data can
be sent over the network without tying up a
communications link.
• Increases efficiency - Only segments which
fail to reach the destination need to be
retransmitted, not the entire data stream.
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DATA ENCAPSULATION
Sequencing

Sequencing messages is the process of

numbering the segments so that the message
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may be reassembled at the destination.
TCP is responsible for sequencing the
individual segments.

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DATA ENCAPSULATION
Protocol Data Units

Encapsulation is the process where protocols add their

information to the data.
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• At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different
name to reflect its new functions.
• There is no universal naming convention for PDUs, in
this course, the PDUs are named according to the
protocols of the TCP/IP suite.
• PDUs passing down the stack are as follows:
1. Data (Data Stream)
2. Segment
3. Packet
4. Frame
5. Bits (Bit Stream)
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DATA ENCAPSULATION
Encapsulation Example

• Encapsulation is a top down

process.
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• The level above does its
process and then passes it
down to the next level of the
model. This process is
repeated by each layer until it
is sent out as a bit stream.

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DATA ENCAPSULATION
De-encapsulation Example

• Data is de-encapsulated as it moves

up the stack.
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• When a layer completes its process,
that layer strips off its header and
passes it up to the next level to be
processed. This is repeated at each
layer until it is a data stream that
the application can process.
1. Received as Bits (Bit Stream)
2. Frame
3. Packet
4. Segment
5. Data (Data Stream)

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DATA ACCESS
Addresses

Both the data link and network layers use addressing to deliver data from source to destination.
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Network layer source and destination addresses - Responsible for delivering the IP packet from original

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source to the final destination.
Data link layer source and destination addresses – Responsible for delivering the data link frame from
one network interface card (NIC) to another NIC on the same network.

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DATA ACCESS
Layer 3 Logical Address

The IP packet contains two IP

addresses:
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• Source IP address - The IP
address of the sending
device, original source of the
packet.
• Destination IP address - The
IP address of the receiving
device, final destination of
the packet.
These addresses may be on the
same link or remote.

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DATA ACCESS
Layer 3 Logical Address

An IP address contains two parts:

• Network portion (IPv4) or Prefix
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(IPv6)
• The left-most part of the address
indicates the network group which
the IP address is a member.
• Each LAN or WAN will have the same
network portion.
• Host portion (IPv4) or Interface ID
(IPv6)
• The remaining part of the address
identifies a specific device within the
group.
• This portion is unique for each device
on the network.

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DATA ACCESS
Devices on the Same Network

When devices are on the same network

the source and destination will have the
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same number in network portion of the
address.
• PC1 – 192.168.1.110
• FTP Server – 192.168.1.9

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DATA ACCESS
Role of the Data Link Layer
Addresses: Same IP Network

When devices are on the same Ethernet

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network the data link frame will use the
actual MAC address of the destination
NIC.
MAC addresses are physically embedded
into the Ethernet NIC and are local
addressing.
• The Source MAC address will be that
of the originator on the link.
• The Destination MAC address will
always be on the same link as the
source, even if the ultimate
destination is remote.
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DATA ACCESS
Devices on a Remote Network

• What happens when the actual

(ultimate) destination is not on the
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same LAN and is remote?
• What happens when PC1 tries to reach
the Web Server?
• Does this impact the network and data
link layers?

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DATA ACCESS
Role of the Network Layer
Addresses

When the source and destination have a

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different network portion, this means
they are on different networks.
• PC1 – 192.168.1
• Web Server – 172.16.1

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DATA ACCESS
Role of the Data Link Layer
Addresses: Different IP Networks

When the final destination is remote, Layer 3 will

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provide Layer 2 with the local default gateway IP
address, also known as the router address.
• The default gateway (DGW) is the router
interface IP address that is part of this LAN and
will be the “door” or “gateway” to all other
remote locations.
• All devices on the LAN must be told about this
address or their traffic will be confined to the
LAN only.
• Once Layer 2 on PC1 forwards to the default
gateway (Router), the router then can start the
routing process of getting the information to
actual destination.

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DATA ACCESS
Role of the Data Link Layer
Addresses: Different IP Networks

• The data link addressing is local addressing

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so it will have a source and destination for
each link.
• The MAC addressing for the first segment
is :
• Source – AA-AA-AA-AA-AA-AA (PC1)
Sends the frame.
• Destination – 11-11-11-11-11-11 (R1-
Default Gateway MAC) Receives the
frame.
Note: While the L2 local addressing will
change from link to link or hop to hop, the L3
addressing remains the same.
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DATA ACCESS
Data Link Addresses

• Since data link addressing is local addressing, it will have a source and destination for each segment or hop of
the journey to the destination.
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• The MAC addressing for the first segment is:
• Source – (PC1 NIC) sends frame
• Destination – (First Router- DGW interface) receives frame

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DATA ACCESS
Data Link Addresses

The MAC addressing for the second hop is:

• Source – (First Router- exit interface) sends frame
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• Destination – (Second Router) receives frame

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DATA ACCESS
Data Link Addresses

The MAC addressing for the last segment is:

• Source – (Second Router- exit interface) sends frame
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• Destination – (Web Server NIC) receives frame

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DATA ACCESS
Data Link Addresses

• Notice that the packet is not modified, but the frame is changed, therefore the L3 IP addressing does not change
from segment to segment like the L2 MAC addressing.
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• The L3 addressing remains the same since it is global and the ultimate destination is still the Web Server.

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