Research methodology

- R.S.Isha Dharshini
Introduction
● Research - Organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions
● Purpose: ✓discovery of new facts
✓ Verification of old ones
● Definition :
Endeavour to discover facts by scientific study, course of critical
investigation
-Oxford dictionary
Characteristics:
1. Solution oriented
2. Logical
3. Objective
4. Impartiality
5. Accuracy
6. Systematic
7. Verifiability
8. Empirical
Objectives of Research
1. Understanding the problem
2. Indentify the cause and effect relationship
3. To innovate new ideas
4. To improve the quality
Types of research
Descriptive vs Analytical:
● Descriptive- collection, recording, describing, analysing facts related to study
● Analytical - control, manipulation, observation and replication

Applied vs Fundamental:
● Applied - action or solution oriented
● Fundamental - formulation of theory and generations
Quantitative vs Qualitative:
● Quantitative - quantitative variables with appropriate units
● Qualitative: can't be measured on scale or units
Conceptual vs Empirical:
● Conceptual: development of new theories, absract ideas and generalized
principles
● Empirical: bases on observation and experimentaion
Research Formulation:
1)Problem formulation:
✓ Identify the problem
2)Literature survey:
✓ search for literature
✓ bibliographies,indexes,abstracts
3) Development of hypothesis:
✓ tentative assumption in research problem
✓ constructed and tested
✓ Good hypothesis - states research problem in concise and precise terms
4) Research design:
✓ well defined plan of action
✓ blue print of research
✓ able to translate scientific model into practical research operation
✓ characteristics - objectivity, reliability,validity, generalization
5) Choice of sample design
✓ systematic plan to choose sample items - sample design
Eg: Purposive sampling
Simple random sampling
Stratified random sampling
6) Data collection:
● Sources of Data - Internal data and External Data
● Types of Data- Primary and Secondary Data
● Methods of collectng Primary data:
✓ by direct observation and experiments
✓ by direct personal interview
✓ by direct interview through phone,sms,email
✓ indirect personal interview
✓ mailed or emailed questionnaire
7) Analysis and Interpretation of Data :
✓raw data into useful forms by classification, tabulation, categorisation
8) Hypothesis testing:
✓ Z test, chi square test, t test and F test
9) Interpretation of results:
✓ outcomes of study
10) Report writing:
✓ Summary of whole research process
Problems encountered by Researchers:
● Lack of fund and facilities
● Overlapping research studies
● Lack of skilled researchers
● Insufficient interactions
● Lack of literature
● Lack of confidence
Research Design
Planned sequence of entire process involved in conducting research study
Features of Good Research Design:
● Freedom from bias
● Freedom from confounding
● Control of extraneous variables
● Objectivity
● Optimality
● Flexibility
● Within resources
DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

Exploratory: Collecting information in an unstructured and informal way.

Helps in determining the best research design,data collection
method and selection of subjects

Literature survey:
Documentary sources of information reports,
Statistics , manuscripts, lectures etc .

Expert survey:
Experience survey
Consulting experienced researchers who experts in
the field of study .
 Example survey:

Case studies performed in the past .

“Insight stimulating examples ”

Descriptive or Diagnostic research design

Set of methods and procedures that describes the study variables .

Statistical or diagnostic research

Describes data and characteristics about the population or phenomenon

being studied

Starts with consideration of larger issues of interest and these are then

narrowed into specific questions.

Casual or Hypothesis testing or experimental research
Design

● Used in hypothesis testing research

● Controlling various factors to determine factor causing problem
● Complex and expensive
● Eg:

✓ completely randomised design

✓ randomised block design

✓ latin square design

✓ factorial design
 Design of Sample Survey

● Collecting information on all the items, objects, individuals or organizations is a huge task
involving a lot of money, time and staff.
● It is a therefore, sounds reasonable to study a portion of these items and try to draw
conclusions. This is called Sampling.
● It is not always possible and time consuming to study the whole population. We therefore,
take out a representative portion of the population, called a sample.
● It results in saving time, money and staff and leads to more accuracy in observation.
Census survey

● If we study each and every unit of a population, it is known as a population

survey or census survey.
● This type of inquiry is suitable where scope of enquiry is limited, the greatest
accuracy is expected and the resources of the investigator are sufficient.
● Census method of investigation is costly and much time consuming. It needs
a big organization to handle the investigation.
● It is therefore, statisticians suggest, studying only a part of the population and
calling it sample survey
Sample survey

● The sampling procedure is based on the assumption that a part of the aggregate represents
well the whole population.
● Sampling is the selection of a part of the population for the purpose of drawing conclusions
about the entire universe.
● The basic aim of sampling is to obtain maximum information about the phenomena under
study, with the least use of resources like money, time and manpower.
Advantages of sampling over census

1. Less time

2. Less cost

3. Greater accuracy

4. Greater scope

5. Census is impossible

6. Administrative convenience
Limitations of sampling

Sample survey is not suitable if higher order accuracy is required.

If the items of the sample are not selected without any bias, the conclusions may not be correct.

The investigator’s personal bias regarding the choice of units and drawing of sample may lead to
false conclusions.

Sample survey is a specialized technique and everybody cannot use it. Its use requires
specialized knowledge and trained personnel.
Objectives of Sample Survey

It is the objectives of the survey (or research study) that guides the researcher in deciding the
important factors.

Important factors :

➢ definition of population,
➢ sample size,
➢ degree of precision required,
➢ sampling technique and the organization of field work.
Principles of Sampling

● Principle of Statistical Regularity

● Principle of Validity
● Principle of Optimization
Sampling errors

➢ Defective sample design

➢ Substitution of units
➢ Faulty demarcation of sampling units
➢ Improper choice of estimates
Non –sampling errors

➢ Faulty definitions of objectives

➢ Response- bias
➢ Non- response bias
➢ Errors due to interviewers
➢ Errors in measurement and publication
Types of Sampling

Purposive Sampling : This sampling technique is also known as Subjective sampling or

judgment sampling or Non-probability sampling.
Random Sampling : The selection is entirely objective. Various ways of random sampling are :
1. Simple random sampling
2. Stratified random sampling
3. Systematic sampling
4. Cluster sampling
5. Area sampling
6. Sub- sampling or Multistage sampling
7. Double sampling & Multiphase sampling
Designing Questionnaires and Interviews

(a) Direct personal interview

(b) Mailed Questionnaire
(a) Direct personal interview
● The interviewer interviews the respondents personally.
● He makes direct contacts with the respondents and puts simple and direct questions to
them.
Advantages
● By this method original data are collected.
● Correct and required information is gathered.
● Promptness is assured.
Disadvantages
● This method is very costly and requires more time.
● Personal bias may vitiate the results.
● If the field of enquiry is too short, the results may not throw light on the
characteristics of the universe.

(b) Mailed questionnaire

● The questionnaire contains a set of questions on the problem under
investigation.
● They are requested to answer the questions and post back to the investigator.
Advantages

● When the area of investigation is large.

● When the information cannot be obtained directly from the informants.
● This method is generally used by the Government .

Disadvantages

● Limitations
● Non- response/incompleteness
● Dependence of questionnaire
● Lack of accuracy and reliability
Requirements of a good questionnaire

● Covering letter
● Lay out
● Number of questions
● Size of a question
● Sequence of questions
● Clarity in a question
● Avoid personal questions
Measurement of Scaling Concepts

Measurement in Research

● Measurement is a device or a process by which we measure things, objects or properties.

● It is a procedure of assigning numerals, numbers or scores to the observations we make
on some phenomenon.

Measurement Scales

1.Nominal scale

2.Ordinal scale

3.Interval scale

4.Ratio scale
Properties of nominal scale:

● The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects.
● The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the objects.
● The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting.

Properties of ordinal scale:

● Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other
object, but not how much more or less.
● Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered relationships between
the objects.
Properties of interval scale:

● Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic
being measured.
● It permits comparison of the differences between objects.
● It is meaningful to take ratios of scale values.

Properties of ratio scale:

● Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales.
● It has an absolute zero point.
● It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
Errors in Measurement
● Random errors : These errors don’t have a pattern and can occur in any
measurement.
● Systematic errors : These errors have a pattern in their occurrence.
Sources of measurement :
1.Respondent
2.Interviewer
3.Non-response
4.Faulty instrument
5.Choice of sample design
Testing of Measurements

1.Reliability

● Test-retest method
● Alternative form method
● Split-half method

2.Validity

● Face validity
● Content validity
● Criterion validity
● Construct validity
Techniques of Developing Measurement Tools

1.Comparative scales

● Method of paired comparison

● Method of rank order
● Method of constant sum scaling

2.Non-comparative scales

● Continuous rating scale

● Itemized rating scales

(i)Likert scale

(ii)Thurstone scale