ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

BASIC CONCEPTS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Definition of terms
Anatomy Is the study of the structure and shape of the body, its parts and
their relationship to one another
Physiology - Is the study of functions of the body systems
◦ Is study of the physical and chemical processes that take place in living
organisms during the performance of life functions
◦ It is concerned with such basic activities as reproduction, growth,
metabolism, excitation, and contraction as they are carried out within
the fine structure, the cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of the
body.
◦ Is the study of how the body and its parts work or function
 Organization of the Body as a whole
1. Level 1 - Chemical Level
First level in the organization of body.
This is the level reserved for the building blocks of human life, including atoms and molecules, which combine to
make organelles, which determine cell function.
These functions can include cell membranes, mitochondria and ribosomes. For the body to function well there
must be equilibrium between internal and external environment known as homeostasis
2. Level 2 - Cells
Are the basic units of structure and function in living things May serve a specific function within the organism
Examples- blood cells, nerve cells, bone cells, etc.
3. Level 3 - Tissues
Made up of cells that are similar in structure and function and which work together to perform a specific activity.
Examples - blood, nervous, bone, etc.
Humans have 4 basic tissues: connective, epithelial, muscle, and nerve. Usually made up of organ systems, but an
organism may be made up of only one cell such as bacteria or protist. Examples - bacteria, amoeba, mushroom,
sunflower, human
Tissue cont…
Epithelial tissue: - Found in the outer layer of skin, lining of organs, blood and lymph vessels
and body cavities.
Connective tissue: - Connects and supports most part of the body. They constitute most part
of skin, bone and tendons.
Muscle tissue: - Produces movement through its ability to contract. This constitutes
skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles.
Nerve tissue: - Found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves. It responds to various types of
stimuli and transmits nerve impulses.
Cont….
4. Level 4 - Organs
Is an integrated collection of two or more kinds of tissue that works together to perform specific
function. Made up of tissues that work together to perform a specific activity. Examples - heart,
brain, skin, stomach, etc.
5. Level 5 - Organ Systems
Is a group of organs that work together to perform major function. Examples - circulatory system,
nervous system, skeletal system, etc.
The Human body has 11 organ systems – circulatory, digestive, endocrine, excretory (urinary),
immune (lymphatic), integumentary, muscular, nervous, reproductive, respiratory, and skeletal.
6. Level 6 - Organisms
Entire living things that can carry out all basic life processes.
Meaning they can take in materials, release energy from food, release wastes, grow, respond to the
environment, and reproduce.
Human Body Systems
The human body is made up of eleven (11) main systems
The cardiovascular system
◦ Has one distinct function; that is to pump the blood . The central organ in this system is the heart.

The digestive system

◦ Is one of the most complex systems of the body. It provides the body’s means of transforming food to energy.

The endocrine system

◦ Is the system that controls the body. It includes the pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pineal, and thymus glands . Uses hormones to
stimulate the metabolic activities of the cells. These hormones are released into the blood stream

The immune system

◦ The body’s main defense against all foreign substances. Without the immune system, human would die immediately from
foreign bacteria billions of which rests on the skin

The excretory system

◦ Get rids of body waste products. Composed of multiple organs. The main organs are the kidneys. The kidneys perform the
dual task of filtering out wastes and purifying blood
The integumentary system
◦ Commonly known as the skin enwraps the body and serves several purposes. . It is composed of the epidermis and the dermis

The muscular system

◦ Is the largest system in the body. Muscles are located in practically every region of the body
◦ The limbs are almost entirely made up of muscles . Muscles are unique because they can contract, this contraction sets muscles apart from all other
tissues

The respiratory system

◦ Supplies the body with oxygen. It comprises of the nose/Mouth, larynx, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and the lungs . Air is inhaled and exhaled
through the nose or mouth

The skeletal System

◦ The human skeleton consists of more than 200 bones bound together by tough and relatively inelastic connective tissues called ligaments . There
different types of bones i.e. short bones, long bones, flat bones, and irregular bones

Reproductive system
◦ Also known as genital system. Is a system concerns with reproduction . The major organs of the human reproductive system include the external
genitalia (penis and vulva) as well as a number of internal organs including the gamete producing gonads (testicles and ovaries)
◦ Is responsible for the existence of the species by reproduction of the same kind

Nervous system
◦ Have two divisions: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system . The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord . The
peripheral nervous system includes all neural tissue outside the central nervous system . It is divided into motor and sensory systems.
SESSION 2: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF HUMAN BODY CELL
INTRODUCTION
 The human body cell is the smallest functional unit of the body.
 Cytology: - It is a branch of science concerned with a study of cells.
 The human body develop from a single cell called the zygote which results
from the fusion of the ovum (female egg cell) and the spermatozoon (male
germ cell) cell multiplication follows and as the fetus grows, cells with
different structural and functional specializations develop.
 Individual cells are too small to been seen with naked eye. However, they
can be seen when their lies of tissue are stained in the laboratory and
magnified by a microscope.
Characteristics of the cell
 Reproduction. When cell growth is complete, they reproduce.
 Irritability. The cell can respond to a stimulus
 Movement. Some cell may move from one place to another
 Excretion. Waste products of cell metabolism are passed out of the cell through cell membrane.
 Growth. Cell are able to grow until they are mature
 Respiration. Every cell requires oxygen and gives out carbon dioxide
 Metabolism. Changes do take place in all living cell e.g. taking in and utilizing nourishment.
 Structure of the human body cell
 A cell consists of a plasma membrane inside which there are a number of organelles
floating in a watery fluid called cytoplasm
 Organelles are small structures with high specialized functions many of which are
contained within a membrane. these are permanent structures with characteristic
morphology that are highly specialized in specific cellular activity. They include the: -
o Nucleus
o Mitochondria
o Ribosomes
o Endoplasmic reticulum
o Golgi apparatus
o Lysosomes
o Microfilaments
o Microtubules
1. Plasma Membrane
o is a thin outer layer, which maintains the integrity of the cell. It keeps the cell and its contents
separate and distinct from the surrounding. It is a double layered made of phospholipids,
cholesterol, glyco-lipid, & carbohydrate (oligosaccharides). The bi-layer is self-sealing. If a needle is
injected and pulled out, it automatically seals.
o The plasma membrane consists of two layers of phospholipids (fatty substances) with some protein
molecule embedded in them that extend all the way through the membrane may provide channels
that allow the passage of for example electrolytes and non-lipid – soluble substances.
o The phospholipids molecules have a head which is electrically charged and hydrophilic attracting
water and a tail which has no charge and is hydrophobic water repelling.
o The phospholipids bi-layer is arranged like a sandwich the hydrophilic heads aligned on the outer
surfaces of the membrane and the hydrophobic tails forming a central water repelling layer.
o These differences influence the transfer of substances across the membrane.
o The membrane protein perform several functions these are:-
i. They give the cell its immunological identity
ii. They can act as specific receptors for hormones and other chemical messengers.
iii. Some are enzymes
iv. Some are involved in transport across the membrane
Function of cell membrane
Separate the cytoplasm inside a cell from extra cellular fluid.
 Separate cell from one another
Provide an abundant surface on which chemical reaction can occur.
 Regulate the passage of materials in to and out of cells. It also let some things in and keeps
others out. The quality selective permeability
CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm is a matrix or ground substance in which various cellular components are found.
It is thick semi transparent, elastic fluid containing suspended particles and a series of
minute tubules and filaments that form cytoskeleton.
Water constitutes 75-90% of the cytoplasm. It also contains solid components, proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids and inorganic substances.
The inorganic components exist as solutions because they are soluble in water.
The majority of organic substances however are found as colloids. Colloids are particles
that remain suspended in the surrounding medium.
 ORGANELLES
i. NUCLEUS
 Is the largest organelle and Oval in shape containing hereditary factor in cell.
 it controls all cell activity & structure.
 Most cell contain single nucleus but some like matured Red Blood cell do not contain. However
Muscle cell contain several nucleuses.
 The nucleus separated from other cell structure by double membrane called nuclear membrane.
Pores over the nuclear membrane allow the nucleus to communicate with the cytoplasm.
 In the nucleus a jelly like fluid that fill the nucleus is karylymph (neucleoplasm), which contain
the genetic material called chromosome.
 Nucleus also contain dark, somewhat spherical, non-membrane bound mass called nucleolus. It
contains DNA, RNA and protein, which assist in the construction of ribosome.
Cont…
ii. Mitochondria
 These are sausage shaped structures in the cytoplasm, sometimes describes as “power house” of
the cell.
 Each mitochondria posses two membrane, one is smooth (upper) membrane and the other is
arranged with series of folds called cristae. The central cavity of a mitochondrion enclosed by the
inner membrane is the matrix.
iii. Ribosomes
 These are tiny granules composed of RNA and protein.
 They are site of protein synthesis by synthesizing proteins from amino acids, using RNA as the
template.
 When present in free units or in small clusters in the cytoplasm, the ribosomes make proteins for
use within the cell. Ribosomes are also found on the outer surface of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
 Endoplasmic reticulum.
 is a double membrane channel. Is a series of interconnecting membranous canals in the
cytoplasm.
 It involved in intracellular exchange of material with the cytoplasm. Various products are
transported from one portion of the cell to another via the endoplasmic reticulum. So it is
considered as intracellular transportation.
 It is also storage for synthesized molecules. Together with the Golgi complex it serves as
synthesis & packaging center.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is divided in to two. These are,
i. Granular E.R.(Rough E.R) Containing granule and involving in synthesis of protein that
are “exported” from cells, i.e. enzymes and hormones that pass out of their parent cell to
be used by other cells in the body
ii. Agranular E.R.(Smooth E.R) that synthesize lipid, steroid hormones & involves in
detoxification.
 v. Golgi apparatus.
 Consists of stacks of closely folded flattened membranous sacs. It process, sort, pack & deliver protein to various
parts of the cell.
 Present in all cells but is larger in those that synthesize and export proteins.
 The protein move from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus where they are ‘packaged’ into
membrane bound vesicles called secretory granules. The vesicles are stored and, when needed, move to the
plasma membrane, through which are proteins are exported.
vi. Lysosomes.
 These are one type of secretory vesicle formed by the Golgi apparatus. They are formed from Golgi complexes &
have single membrane. They contain powerful digestive (hydrolytic) enzyme capable of breaking down many
kinds of molecules. The lysosomal enzyme believed to be synthesized in the granular endoplasmic reticulum and
Golgi complex.
 They contain a variety of enzymes involved in breaking down fragment of organelles and large molecules, e.g.
(RNA, DNA, carbohydrate, proteins) inside the cell into smaller particles that are either recycled, or extruded
from the cell as waste material. In white blood cells contain enzymes that digest foreign material such as
microbes
Cont…
vii. Microfilaments.
 These are tiny strands of protein that provide structural support and maintain the characteristic
shape of the cell.
viii. Microtubules
 These are contractile protein structures in the cytoplasm involved in the movement of the cell and
of organelles within the cell, the movement of cilia (small projection from the free border of some
cells) and possibly the organization of proteins in the plasma membrane.
CELL DIVISION
Is the process through which cells do replicates themselves.
There are two types of cell division:-
i. Mitosis
ii. Meiosis
A. MITOSIS.
 Is a process by which the nucleus of a cell divides to create two new nuclei, each containing an
identical copy of DNA.
 Occurs when a single cell divides itself into daughter cells, having similar characteristics and
attributes.
 Its process passes into four stages which are: - Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase
 Before and after the cells have divided, they enter a stage called interphase. The interphase is often
thought to be the resting period of a cell but the cell is busy getting ready for replication
 Mitosis cont…
Prophase
 During this stage the chromatids become visible within the nucleus and the mitotic
apparatus appears. This consists of two centrioles separated by mitotic spindle
which is formed from microtubules. The centrioles migrate one to each end of the
cell and nuclear envelop disappears
Metaphase
 During this phase the chromatids align on the center of the spindle attached by their
centromeres
Anaphase
 During anaphase the chromatids in each pair of sister chromatid are separated. One chromatid from each
then moves towards each pole of the spindle.
Telophase
 The mitotic apparatus disappears, the chromosomes uncoil and the nuclear envelop reforms. Following
Telophase the cytoplasm and the plasma membrane divide in half forming two identical cells. The
organelles of the daughter cells are incomplete at the cell division but they develop as the cell matures
during interphase
 Meiosis
 This is the process of cell division that occurs in the formation of reproductive cells (gametes – the ova and spermatozoa)
 In meiosis four daughter cells are formed after two division. During meiosis the pairs of chromosomes separate and one from
each pair moves to opposite poles of the “parent” cells.
 When it divides each of the “daughter” cells has only 23 chromosomes called the haploid. This means that when the ovum is
fertilized the resultant zygote has the full complete of 46 chromosomes (the diploid number), half from the father and half from
the mother.
 Thus the child has some characteristics inherited from both parents such as color of hair and eyes, height, facial features and
some diseases.
 Determination of sex depend upon one particular pair of chromosomes (the sex chromosomes)
 In the female both sex chromosomes are called X chromosomes.
 In the male there is one X chromosome and a slightly smaller Y chromosome.
 When the ovum is fertilized by an X bearing spermatozoon the child is female and when by a Y bearing spermatozoon the child
is male.
o Sperm X + Ovum X = child XX = female
o Sperm Y + Ovum X = child XY = male.
Functions of the Human Cells
 Basic unit of life
 The cell is the smallest part to which an organism can be reduced that still retains the
characteristics of life
 Protection and support
 Produces and secretes various molecules that provide protection and support of the body
 Movement of the body occurs because of molecules located within specific cells such as muscle cells
 Communication: Produces and receives chemicals and electrical signals that allow them to
communicate with one another
 Cell metabolism and energy release: Chemical reaction that occur within cells are referred to
collectively as cell metabolism
 Inheritance: Each cell contains a copy of the genetic information of the individual
SESSION 3: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF
HUMAN BODY TISSUES AND MEMBRANE
Parts and Structure of the Human Body Tissues and Membrane
 Tissue is a group or collection of similar cells and their intercellular substance that
perform a particular function.
 A science that deals with the study of a tissue is Histology.
 Tissues are classified according to the size, shape and function of these cells.
 There are four main types of tissue each of which has subdivisions.
 These are: -
i. Epithelial tissue or epithelium
ii. Connective tissue
iii. Muscle tissue
iv. Nervous tissue
1. Epithelial tissue(Epithelia)
This group of tissue which covers body surface, lines body cavity & ducts and form glands. They have usually
the basement membrane in which the cell lies.
The structure of epithelium is closely related to its functions which include:-
 Protection of underlying structures from e.g. dehydration, chemical and mechanical damage
 Secretion
 Absorption
Epithelial tissue may classify as follows -
A. SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
 Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of identical cells and is divided into 4 types. it is specialized for
absorption, and filtration with minimal wear & tear. It is a single layered
 It is usually found on absorptive or secretory surfaces, where the single layer enhances these processes and not
usually on surfaces subjected to stress. The four types of simple epithelium are:-
i. Squamous (pavement epithelium)
 This is composed of a single layer of flattered cells. The cells fit closely together like flat stones, forming a thin
and very smooth membrane. It is highly adapted to diffusion, osmosis & filtration. They are found in heart,
Kidneys, blood vessels, lymph vessels and alveoli of the lungs where it is also known as endothelium.
ii. Cuboidal epithelium
 This consists of cube shaped cells fitting closely together lying on a basement membrane. It forms
the tubules of the kidneys and is found in some gland. They covers the surface of ovary, lines the
anterior surface of lens of the eye, retina & tubules of kidney
iii. Columnar epithelium
 This is formed by a single layer of cells, rectangular in shape, on a basement membrane. They are
tall and cylindrical in shape. It is found living the organs of the alimentary tract and consist of
mixture of cells some absorb the products of the digestion and other secrete mucus. Mucus is a
thick sticky substance secreted by modified columnar cells called goblet cells. It functions in
secretions, absorption, protection & lubrication.
iv. Ciliated epithelium
 This is formed by columnar cells each of which has many fine, hair-like processes called cilia.
Ciliated epithelium is found lining the uterine tubes and most of respiratory passages. In the uterine
tubes the cilia propel mucus towards the throat.
B. STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
 It consists of many layers, more durable, protects underlying tissues form external environment and from wear
& tear. The superficial layers grow up from below. Basement membrane is usually absent.
 They are divided into:
i. Stratified Squamous Epithelium
 This is composed of a number of layers of cells of different shapes representing newly formed and mature cells
ii. Stratified Cuboidal epithelium
 This is composed of two or more layers of cells and they are found sweat gland ducts, Egg producing vesicles
(follicles) of ovaries, Sperm producing ducts (somniferous tubules) of testis, conjunctiva of eye, and cavernous
urethra of the male urogenital system, pharynx & epiglottis. Its main function is secretion.
iii. Non-keratinized stratified epithelium
 This is found on wet surfaces that may be subjected to wear and tear but are protected from the drying e.g. the
conjunctiva of the eyes, the lining of the mouth, the pharynx, the esophagus and the vagina.
iv. Keratinized stratified epithelium
 This is found on dry surface that are subjected to wear and tear e.g. skin, hair and nails
C. Transitional epithelium
The distinction is that cells of the outer layer in transitional epithelium tend to be large and
rounded rather than flat. The feature allows the tissue to be stretched with out breakage. It
is found in Urinary bladder, part of Ureters & urethra.
2. Connective tissue
Is the most abundant tissue in the body, The cells forming the connective tissue are more widely separate from each other than that
forming the epithelium and intercellular substance is present in considerably larger amounts.;

the typical function of connective tissue is to fill empty spaces among other body tissues. This function is associated with the ability
of the cells of the connective tissue to secrete substances that compose extracellular material, such as collagen and elastic fibres,
creating a significant spacing between these cells. Connective tissue (excluding blood) is found in organs supporting specialised
tissues.

Major functions of connective tissue are:- Binding and structural support, Protection, Transport and Insulation

Cells of connective tissue involve

a) Fibroblasts
b) Fat cells
c) Macrophage
d) Leukocytes
e) Mast cells
 Types of connective tissue
1. Loose (areolar) connective tissue.

This is the most generalized of all connective tissue. It is found in almost every part of the body
providing elasticity and tensile strength.

It connects and support other tissues e.g., Under the skin, Between muscle, Supporting blood vessels
and nerves, In the alimentary canal , In the glands supporting secretory cells.

Are widely distributed and consists collagenic, elastic & reticular fibers and several cells(adipocytes,
mast cells and macrophages) embedded in semi fluid intercellular substances.

It also forms subcutaneous layer/superficial fascia/hypodermis.

2. Adipose tissue.
It is the subcutaneous layer below the skin, specialized for fat storage. Found where there is loose
connective tissue. It is common around the kidney, at the base and on the surface of the heart, in the
marrow of long bone, as a padding around joints, behind the eye ball and brain.
 Is poor conductor of heat, so it decrease heat loss from the body.
 It consists of fat cells (adipocytes) containing large fat globules, in a matrix of areola tissue.
 Two Types of adipose tissue: White and Brown
a. White adipose tissue.
 This makes up 20 to 25% of the body weight in well-nourished adults. The amount of adipose
tissue in an individual is determined by the balance between energy and expenditure
b. Brown adipose tissue
 This is present in the newborn.
 When brown tissue is metabolized, it produces energy and considerably more heat than other
fat, contributing to the maintenance of body temperature.
 In adults it is presenting only in small amounts.
3. Dense (Collagenous) connective tissue, fibrous tissue: Fibers are closely packed than in loose
connective tissue. Itis made up of closely
packed collagen fibers with little matrix is found in ligaments,
periosteum, muscle fascia and tendons.
Exists in areas where tensions are exerted in various directions. In areas where fibers are interwoven
without regular orientation the forces exerted are in many directions.
This occurs in most fascia like deeper region of dermis, periosteum of bone and membrane capsules.
In other areas dense connective tissue adapted tension in one direction and fibers have parallel
arrangement. Examples are tendons and ligaments.
Dense connective tissues provide support & protection and connect muscle to bone.

4. Lymphoid tissue
Lymphoid tissue contains reticular cells and white blood cells and
is found in lymph tissue in the lymph nodes and all lymphatic
organs including, Spleen, Palatine and pharyngeal tonsils, Vermiform appendix, Solitary and
aggregated nodes in the small intestine, Wall of the large intestine.
5. Cartilage.
 Cartilage is a much firmer tissue than any of the other connective tissues, the cells are called chondrocytes and
are less numerous.
 there are three types of cartilage.
a) Hyaline cartilage
o This appears as a smooth bluish white tissue, it is found
o On the surfaces of the parts of the bone that form joints
o Forming the costal cartilages, which attach the ribs to the stem
o Forming part of the larynx, trachea and bronchi.
b) Fibrocartilage
o This consists of dense masses of white collagen fiber in a matrix similar to that of hyaline cartilage with
the cells widely dispersed.
o It is a tough, slightly flexible tissue found.
o As pads between the bodies of the vertebrae, called the intervertebral discs
o Between the articulating surfaces of the bones of the tense joint called semilunar cartilages.
o On the rim of the bony sockets of the hip and shoulder joints deepening the cavities without restricting
movement.
o As ligament joining bones.
c) Elastic cartilage
o This flexible tissue consists of yellow elastic fibers lying in a solid matrix. It forms the pinna or lobe of
the year, the epiglottis and part of the tunica media of blood vessel walls.
6. Bone
 Bone is connective tissue with cells (osteocytes) surrounded by a matrix of collagen fiber that is
strengthened by inorganic salts, especially calcium and phosphate
 This provides bones with their characterized strength and rigidity.
 Two types of bone can be identified by the naked eyes these are
i. Compact bone – solid or dense appearance
ii. Cancellous or spongy bone – has fine honey comb appearance
3. Muscle tissue
Muscle tissues are tissues made of cells that permit contractions and as such generate
movement.

The function of the muscle tissue is to pull bones (skeletal striated muscle), to contract and
move viscera and vessels (smooth muscle) as well as making the heart beat (cardiac striated
muscle).

Each time we move, our heart beats, we breathe, ingest food or urinate, muscle is involved.

The muscle cells have internal structures called sarcomeres where there are myosin and
actin molecules that work in creating contraction and movement.
Muscle tissue cont
There are three kinds of muscle in the body: skeletal, cardiac and smooth muscle.

a) Skeletal muscle is also known as striated muscle, it is a voluntary muscle. Cells within the
skeletal muscle are long and thin and have multiple nuclei.
b) Cardiac muscle is only found in the heart, it is similar to skeletal muscle with the muscle fibres
interlocking with each other ensuring that as one aspect of the muscle is stimulated all other
stimulated fibres contact in unison; in a sequential way. Cardiac muscle is not under voluntary
control; the special cells of the sinoatrial node are responsible for sending out impulses causing
cardiac contraction.
c) Smooth muscle is involuntary and held together by connective tissue with bands of elastic
protein wrapped around them. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of hollow structures and
vessels, for example, the blood vessels, the ureters, urinary bladder, parts of the respiratory tract,
ducts and glands of the alimentary tract.
 4. Nervous tissue
Nervous tissue is made up of neurons and glial cells.
The function of the nervous tissue is to receive and to transmit neural impulses (reception and
transmission of information).
There are two types of tissue found in the nervous system:
i. excitable cells (the neurons – they initiate, receive, conduct and transmit information) and
ii. the non-excitable cells (the glial cells – these support the neurons).
A neuron (the basic unit of nervous tissue) consists of axon, dendrites and a cell body.,
Neurons usually have one axon (this can be branched). Axons usually terminate at a synapse through
which the signal is sent to the next cell, usually through a dendrite.