Finite Element Method

Introduction
• The FEM was first used to solve problems of stress
analysis, and has since been applied to many other
problems like thermal analysis, fluid flow analysis,
piezoelectric analysis, and many others. Basically, the
analyst seeks to determine the distribution of some field
variable like the displacement in stress analysis, the
temperature or heat flux in thermal analysis, the
electrical charge in electrical analysis, and so on.
 Cond…

• The Finite Element Method (FEM) has developed into

a key, crucial technology in the modelling and
simulation of advanced engineering systems in various
fields like housing, transportation, communications,
and so on. In building such advanced engineering
systems, engineers and designers go through a
sophisticated process of modelling, simulation,
visualization, analysis, designing, prototyping, testing,
and lastly, fabrication. Note that much work is
involved before the fabrication of the final product or
system. This is to ensure the workability of the
finished product, as well as for cost effectiveness.
Cond…

• The process is illustrated as a flowchart in Figure 1.1.

This process is often iterative in nature, meaning that
some of the procedures are repeated based on the
results obtained at a current stage, so as to achieve an
optimal performance at the lowest cost for the system
to be built. Therefore, techniques related to modelling
and simulation in a rapid and effective way play an
increasingly important role, resulting in the
application of the FEM being multiplied numerous
times because of this.
• The FEM is a numerical method seeking an
approximated solution of the distribution of field
variables in the problem domain that is difficult to
obtain analytically. It is done by dividing the problem
domain into several elements.
Computational Modelling Using the FEM
• The behaviour of a phenomenon in a system depends upon
the geometry or domain of the system, the property of the
material or medium, and the boundary, initial and loading
conditions. For an engineering system, the geometry or
domain can be very complex.
• Further, the boundary and initial conditions can also be
complicated. It is therefore, in general, very difficult to
solve the governing differential equation via analytical
means.
• In practice, most of the problems are solved using
numerical methods. Among these, the methods of domain
discretization championed by the FEM are the most
popular, due to its practicality and versatility
Cond…

• The procedure of computational modelling using the FEM broadly

consists of four steps:
– Modeling of the geometry.
– Meshing (discretization).
– Specification of material property.
– Specification of boundary, initial and loading conditions.
1. Modeling of the Geometry
• Real structures, components or domains are in general very
complex, and have to be reduced to a manageable geometry. Curved
parts of the geometry and its boundary can be modeled using curves
and curved surfaces. However, it should be noted that the geometry is
eventually represented by a collection of elements, and the curves
and curved surfaces are approximated by piecewise straight lines or
flat surfaces, if linear elements are used.
Cond…
• The accuracy of representation of the curved parts is controlled
by the number of elements used. It is obvious that with more
elements, the representation of the curved parts by straight
edges would be smoother and more accurate. Unfortunately,
the more elements, the longer the computational time that is
required. Hence, due to the constraints on computational
hardware and software, it is always necessary to limit the
number of elements.
Cond…
• Depending on the software used, there are many ways to create a proper geometry
in the computer for the FE mesh. Points can be created simply by keying in the
coordinates. Lines and curves can be created by connecting the points or nodes.
Surfaces can be created by connecting, rotating or translating the existing lines or
curves; and solids can be created by connecting, rotating or translating the existing
surfaces.
• Graphic interfaces are often used to help in the creation and manipulation of the
geometrical objects. There are numerous Computer Aided Design (CAD) software
packages used for engineering design which can produce files containing the
geometry of the designed engineering system.
• Knowledge, Experience and engineering judgment are very important in modeling
the geometry of a system. In many cases, finely detailed geometrical features play
only an aesthetic role, and have negligible effects on the performance of the
engineering system.
Cond…
• These features can be deleted, ignored or simplified, though this may not be true
in some cases, where a fine geometrical change can give rise to a significant
difference in the simulation results.
• An example of having sufficient knowledge and engineering judgment is in the
simplification required by the mathematical modeling. For example, a plate has
three dimensions geometrically. The plate in the plate theory of mechanics is
represented mathematically only in two dimensions. Therefore, the geometry of a
‘mechanics’ plate is a two-dimensional flat surface. Plate elements will be used in
meshing these surfaces. A similar situation can be found in shells. A physical
beam has also three dimensions. The beam in the beam theory of mechanics is
represented mathematically only in one dimension, therefore the geometry of a
‘mechanics’ beam is a one-dimensional straight line. Beam elements have to be
used to mesh the lines in models. This is also true for truss structures.
2. Meshing

• Meshing is performed to discretize the geometry created

into small pieces called elements or cells. Why do we
discretize?
• The rational behind this can be explained in a very
straightforward and logical manner. We can expect the
solution for an engineering problem to be very complex,
and varies in a way that is very unpredictable using
functions across the whole domain of the problem. If the
problem domain can be divided (meshed) into small
elements or cells using a set of grids or nodes, the solution
within an element can be approximated very easily using
simple functions such as polynomials. The solutions for all
of the elements thus form the solution for the whole
problem domain
Cond…

• Mesh generation is a very important task of the pre-process. It

can be a very time consuming task to the analyst, and usually
an experienced analyst will produce a more credible mesh for a
complex problem. The domain has to be meshed properly into
elements of specific shapes such as triangles and quadrilaterals.
• Triangulation is the most flexible and well-established way in
which to create meshes with triangular elements. It can be
made almost fully automated for two-dimensional (2D) planes,
and even three-dimensional (3D) spaces. Therefore, it is
commonly available in most of the pre-processors. The
additional advantage of using triangles is the flexibility of
modelling complex geometry and its boundaries. The
disadvantage is that the accuracy of the simulation results
based on triangular elements is often lower than that obtained
using quadrilateral elements.
3. Property of Material or Medium

• Many engineering systems consist of more than one material.

Property of materials can be defined either for a group of
elements or each individual element, if needed. For different
phenomena to be simulated, different sets of material properties
are required. For example, Young’s modulus and shear modulus
are required for the stress analysis of solids and structures,
whereas the thermal conductivity coefficient will be required
for a thermal analysis.
• Inputting of a material’s properties into a pre-processor is
usually straightforward; all the analyst needs to do is key in the
data on material properties and specify either to which region of
the geometry or which elements the data applies.
4. Boundary, Initial and Loading Conditions
• Boundary,initial and loading conditions play a decisive role in
solving the simulation. Inputting these conditions is usually
done easily using commercial pre-processors, and it is often
interfaced with graphics.
• Users can specify these conditions either to the geometrical
identities (points, lines or curves, surfaces, and solids) or to the
elements or grids.
• Again, to accurately simulate these conditions for actual
engineering systems requires experience, knowledge and
proper engineering judgments. The boundary, initial and
loading conditions are different from problem to problem,
5. Simulation

• Discrete System Equations; Based on the mesh generated, a

set of discrete simultaneous system equations can be
formulated using existing approaches. There are a few types
of approach for establishing the simultaneous equations.
• The first is based on energy principles, such as Hamilton’s
principle, the minimum potential energy principle, and so on.
The traditional Finite Element Method (FEM) is established
on these principles. The second approach is the weighted
residual method. The third approach is based on the Taylor
series, which led to the formation of the traditional Finite
Difference Method (FDM). The fourth approach is based on
the control of conservation laws on each finite volume
(elements) in the domain. The Finite Volume Method (FVM)
is established using this approach. Another approach is by
integral representation, used in some mesh free methods.
Cond…
• Engineering practice has so far shown that the first two approaches
are most often used for solids and structures, and the other two
approaches are often used for fluid flow simulation. However, the
FEM has also been used to develop commercial packages for fluid
flow and heat transfer problems, and FDM can be used for solids
and structures.
6. Visualization
• The result generated after solving the system equation is usually a
vast volume of digital data. The results have to be visualized in
such a way that it is easy to interpolate, analyze and present. The
visualization is performed through a so-called post-processor,
usually packaged together with the software. Most of these
processors allow the user to display 3D objects in many convenient
and colourful ways on-screen. The object can be displayed in the
form of wire-frames, group of elements, and groups of nodes. The
user can rotate, translate and zoom into and out from the objects.
 Fundamental Concept of FEM
• The finite element method is a numerical method for solving
problems of engineering and mathematical physics. Typical
problem areas of interest in engineering and mathematical
physics that are solvable by use of the finite element method
include structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, mass
transport, and electromagnetic potential.

• Hence we need to rely on numerical methods, such as the finite

element method, for acceptable solutions. The finite element
formulation of the problem results in a system of simultaneous
algebraic equations for solution, rather than requiring the
solution of differential equations. These numerical methods
yield approximate values of the unknowns at discrete numbers
of points in the continuum.
Cond…

• A continuous field of a certain domain having infinite

degrees of freedom is approximated by a set of piecewise
continuous models with a number of finite regions called
elements. The number of unknowns defined as nodes are
determined using a given relationship i.e.{F}=[K]*{d}.

• The process of modeling a body by dividing it into an

equivalent system of smaller bodies or units (finite elements)
interconnected at points common to two or more elements
(nodal points or nodes) and/or boundary lines and/or surfaces
is called discretization.
Introduction of matrix Notation
• Matrix methods are a necessary tool used in the finite
element method for purposes of simplifying the
formulation of the element stiffness equations, for
purposes of long-hand solutions of various problems, and,
most important, for use in programming the methods for
high-speed electronic digital computers.
• A matrix is a rectangular array of quantities arranged in
rows and columns that is often used as an aid in expressing
and solving a system of algebraic equations.
Cond…
• The more general case of a known rectangular matrix will be
indicated by use of the bracket notation []. For instance, the
element and global structure stiffness matrices [k] and [K],
respectively, developed throughout the text for various
element types, are represented by square matrices given as
Cond…

• where, in structural theory, the elements kij and Kij are

often referred to as stiffness influence coefficients. You
will learn that the global nodal forces {F} and the global
nodal displacements {d} are related through use of the
global stiffness matrix [K]by

• The above equation is called the global stiffness equation

and represents a set of simultaneous equations. It is the
basic equation formulated in the stiffness or displacement
method of analysis.
• The expanded form of the above equation is
 Fundamental Concept of FEM

Domain 
x

 • Red line-Continuous
Domain with degrees of freedom
field over the entire
domain.
x
• Blue line-Finite
f
number of linear
f Subdomain We
x
approximations with
Domain divided with subdomains
the finite number of
elements
with degrees of freedom

f1

f2
f5 f6
f3
f4
x
General Steps in Finite Element method
• This section presents the general steps included in a finite
element method formulation and solution to an
engineering problem. We will use these steps as our guide
in developing solutions for structural and nonstructural
problems.
• For simplicity’s sake, for the presentation of the steps to
follow, we will consider only the structural problem.
• Typically, for the structural stress-analysis problem, the
engineer seeks to determine displacements and stresses
throughout the structure, which is in equilibrium and is
subjected to applied loads. For many structures, it is
difficult to determine the distribution of deformation using
conventional methods, and thus the finite element method
is necessarily used.
General Steps
• There are two general direct approaches traditionally associated
with the finite element method as applied to structural mechanics
problems.
• One approach, called the force or flexibility, method, uses internal
forces as the unknowns of the problem.
• To obtain the governing equations, first the equilibrium equations
are used. Then necessary additional equations are found by
introducing compatibility equations. The result is a set of algebraic
equations for determining the redundant or unknown forces.
• The second approach, called the displacement or stiffness, method,
assumes the displacements of the nodes as the unknowns of the
problem.
• Then the governing equations are expressed in terms of nodal
displacements using the equations of equilibrium and an applicable
law relating forces to displacements.
 General Steps
1) Discretize the domain
a) Divide domain into finite elements using appropriate
element types (1-D, 2-D, 3-D, or Axisymmetric)

• The elements must be made small enough to give usable

results and yet large enough to reduce computational effort.

2) Select a Displacement Function

a) Define a function within each element using the nodal
values
3) Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/strain
Relationships
4) Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations
a)Derive the equations within each element
 General Steps
5) Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the
Global or Total Equations and Introduce
Boundary Conditions
a)Add element equations by method of superposition to
obtain global equation
6) Solve for the Unknown Degrees of Freedom (i.e
primary unknowns)
7) Solve for the Element Strains and Stresses
8) Interpret the Results
 Applications
• Stress Analysis
– Truss and frame analysis
– Stress concentration
• Buckling
• Vibration analysis
• Heat transfer
• Fluid flow
Advantages of FEM
• This method has a number of advantages that have made it
very popular. They include the ability to

– Model irregularly shaped bodies

– Compute General load conditions
– Model bodies composed of different materials because
the element equations are evaluated individually
– Solve unlimited numbers and kinds of boundary
conditions
– Able to use different element sizes in places where loads
or stresses are concentrated
– Handle non-linear behavior using linear approximations
– Reduce System Cost
 FEM Packages
• Large Commercial Programs
– Designed to solve many types of problems
– Can be upgraded fairly easily
– Initial Cost is high
– Less efficient
• Special-purpose programs
– Relatively short, low development costs
– Additions can be made quickly
– Efficient in solving their specific types of problems
– Can’t solve different types of problems
 FEM Packages
• Algor • IMAGES-3D
• ANSYS • MSC/NASTRAN
• COSMOS/M • SAP90
• STARDYNE • GT-STRUDL
 Stiffness (Displacement) Method
• Familiarity with the stiffness matrix is essential to
understanding the stiffness method. We define the stiffness
matrix as follows: For an element, a stiffness matrix[k]is a
matrix such that

• Where [k] relates nodal displacements {d} to nodal

forces{f}of a single element,
Cond…

• For a continuous medium or structure comprising a series

of elements, such as shown for the spring assemblage in
Figure above, stiffness matrix [K] relates global-
coordinate (x;y;z) nodal displacements {d} to global forces
{F}of the whole medium or structure. such that

• where [K] represents the stiffness matrix of the whole

spring assemblage.
 Derivation of the stiffness matrix for a spring element
• Consider the linear spring element shown below

• These reference points are called the nodes of the spring

element. The local nodal forces are f1x and f2x for the spring
element associated with the local axis x. The local axis acts in
the direction of the spring so that we can directly measure
displacements and forces along the spring. The local nodal
displacements are u1 and u2 for the spring element.
• These nodal displacements are called the degrees of freedom at
each node. Positive directions for the forces and displacements
at each node are taken in the positive x direction as shown from
node 1 to node 2 in the figure.
Cond…
• The symbol k is called the spring constant or stiffness of
the spring.
• A prismatic uniaxial bar has a spring constant k=AE/L
• A prismatic circular-cross-section bar in torsion has a
spring constant k=JG/L
• For one-dimensional heat conduction where
Kxx is the thermal conductivity of the material.
Cond…
• We now want to develop a relationship between nodal forces
and nodal displacements for a spring element. This relationship
will be the stiffness matrix. Therefore, we want to relate the
nodal force matrix to the nodal displacement matrix as follows:

• We now use the general steps to derive the stiffness matrix for
the spring element in this section (while keeping in mind that
these same steps will be applicable later in the derivation of
stiffness matrices of more general elements) and then to
illustrate a complete solution of a spring assemblage
Step 1 Select the Element Type
• Consider the linear spring element (which can be an element in a
system of springs) subjected to resulting nodal tensile forces T
(which may result from the action of adjacent springs) directed
along the spring axial direction x as shown in the figure, so as to
be in equilibrium.
Step 2 Select a Displacement Function
• We must choose in advance the mathematical function to
represent the deformed shape of the spring element under
loading. The most common functions used are polynomials.
• Because the spring element resists axial loading only with the
local degrees of freedom for the element being displacements u1
and u2 along the x direction, we choose a displacement function
u to represent the axial displacement throughout the element.
• Because a linear function with specified endpoints has a unique
path. Therefore,
• In general, the total number of coefficients a is equal to the
total number of degrees of freedom associated with the
element. Here the total number of degrees of freedom is
two an axial displacement at each of the two nodes of the
element.
• In matrix form, the above equation becomes

• We now want to express u as a function of the nodal

displacements u1 and u2, as this will allow us to apply the
physical boundary conditions on nodal displacements
directly as indicated in step 3 and to then relate the nodal
displacements to the nodal forces in step 4. We achieve
this by evaluating u at each node and solving for a1and a2
• N1 and N2 are called the shape functions N1=1 at node 1
and N1=0 at node 2, where as N2=1at node 2 and N2=0 at
node 1.
Step 3 Define the Strain/Displacement and Stress/Strain
Relationships
• The tensile forces T produce a total elongation (deformation)
δ of the spring.
• The deformation of the spring is then represented by

• The stress/strain relationship can be expressed in terms of the

force/deformation relationship instead as
=
Step 4 Derive the Element Stiffness Matrix and Equations
• We now derive the spring element stiffness matrix. By the
sign convention for nodal forces and equilibrium,
;
• Rewriting the above equation, we obtain

• Now expressing in a single matrix equation yields

• Here [k] is called the local stiffness matrix for the element.
We observe from the equation that [k] is a symmetric (that
is, kij = kji) square matrix (the number of rows equals the
number of columns in [k]).
Step 5 Assemble the Element Equations to Obtain the Global
Equations and Introduce Boundary Conditions
• (Throughout this text, the ⅀ sign used in this context does
not imply a simple summation of element matrices but
rather denotes that these element matrices must be
assembled properly according to the direct stiffness
method.
Step 6 Solve for the Nodal Displacements
• The displacements are then determined by imposing
boundary conditions, such as support conditions, and
solving a system of equations simultaneously as

Step 7 Solve for the Element Forces

• Finally, the element forces are determined by back-
substitution, applied to each ele-ment,
 Potential Energy Approach to derive spring
Element Equations
• One of the alternative methods often used to derive the
element equations and the stiffness matrix for an element is
based on the principle of minimum potential energy.
• Thus the principle of minimum potential energy is more
adaptable to the determination of element equations for
complicated elements (those with large numbers of degrees
of freedom) such as the plane stress/strain element, the
axisymmetric stress element, the plate bending element,
and the three-dimensional solid stress element.
• The principle of minimum potential energy is applicable
only for elastic materials.
• The total potential energy πp of a structure is expressed in
terms of displacements.
• Total potential energy is defined as the sum of the internal
strain energy U and the potential energy of the external
forces Ώ; that is,

• Strain energy is the capacity of internal forces (or stresses)

to do work through deformations (strains) in the structure;
Ώ is the capacity of forces such as body forces, surface
traction forces, and applied nodal forces to do work
through deformation of the structure.
• The external work We is then given from basic mechanics
principles as the integral of the dot product of vector force F
with the differential displacement dx. This expression is
represented by

• By the conservation of mechanical energy principle, the

external work due to the applied force F is transformed into
the internal strain energy U of the spring. This strain energy
is then given by

• Upon gradual reduction of the force to zero, the spring

returns to its original un-deformed state. This returned
energy that is stored in the deformed elastic spring is called
internal strain energy or just strain energy. Also
• We can express the strain energy as
• The potential energy of the external force, being opposite
in sign from the external work expression because the
potential energy of the external force is lost when the work
is done by the external force, is given by

• The total potential energy as

• In general for any deformation x of the spring

corresponding to force F, we replace xmax with x and Fmax
with F and express U and Ώ as
• We express the total potential energy as

• To apply the principle of minimum potential energy—that

is, to minimize πp—we take the variation of πp, which is a
function of nodal displacements di defined in general as

• The principle states that equilibrium exists when the di

define a structure state such that δπp=0 (change in potential
energy=0) for arbitrary admissible variations in
displacement πdi from the equilibrium state. An admissible
variation is one in which the displacement field still satisfies
the boundary conditions and interelement continuity.
• Hence, to satisfy δπp=0, all coefficients associated with
the δdi must be zero independently. Thus,

Example
• For the linear-elastic spring subjected to a force of 1000 lb
shown in Figure, evaluate the potential energy for various
displacement values and show that the minimum potential
energy also corresponds to the equilibrium position of the
spring.
• We now derive the spring element equations and stiffness
matrix using the principle of minimum potential energy.
Consider the linear spring subjected to nodal forces shown
in Figure

• Total potential energy is

• Simplifying the above equation, we obtain

• The minimization of πp with respect to each nodal
displacement requires taking partial derivatives of πp with
respect to each nodal displacement such that

• Stiffness matrix