Chapter One

Introduction to Digital Systems

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 Outlin
e
 Basic Concepts of digital systems
 Logic gates
 Boolean Algebra
 Combinational circuit
 Flip Flops
 Sequential circuits

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 Computer Architecture and Organization
 Computer Architecture: deals with giving operational attributes of the
computer or Processor to be specific
 It deals with physical memory, CPU, Input Output mechanism and
technique for addressing memories
 Computer Organization: is realization of what is specified by the computer
architecture
 It deals with how operational attributes are linked together to meet the
requirements specified by computer architecture.

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 Introduction to Digital Ssystems
 Digital systems are designed to store, process, and communicate information in
digital form which is with binary number has only two discrete values zero
or one
 It represents the OFF and ON status of an electronic switch called a
transistor.
 All computers only understand binary numbers
 The basic blocks of a computer are the central processing unit (CPU), the
memory, and the input/output (I/O).
 The CPU of the computer is basically the same as the brain of a human

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 LOGIC GATES
 A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit.
 It is a circuit with one output and one or more inputs.
 At any given moment, logic gate takes one of the two binary conditions
low (0) or high (1), represented by different voltage levels.
 A voltage level will represent each of the two logic values.
 E.g. +5V represent a logic 1 and 0V represent a logic 0
 There are three fundamental logic gates namely
 AND,
 OR and
 NOT
 NAND and NOR gates are called the Universal Gates.
 XOR and XNOR gates are called derived Logic Gates
 LOGIC GATES …
 AND Gates : has two or more input signals but only one output signal.
 All the inputs must be high (1) to get a high (1) output.
 If we have two inputs to this AND gate and both the inputs are high then the
output will be high otherwise the output will be low.
 All the possible inputs and outputs are shown in the following table
 LOGIC GATES …
 OR Gates: has two or more input signals but only one output signal.
 If any input signal is high, the output signal is high.
 If we have two inputs to this OR gate and any of the two inputs is high then the output
will be high.
 This can be shown in a table below with all the possible inputs and corresponding
outputs.

Y=A+B
OR Gate Function

OR Gate symbol

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 LOGIC GATES …
 NOT or Inverter: a low input produces a high output, and a high input
produces low output.
 In binary format if the input is 0 the output will be 1 and if the input is 1
then the output will be 0.
 The table shows the input and output possibilities
Truth Table
A Y=A
NOT Gate Function
NOT Gate symbol

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 LOGIC GATES …
 NAND Gate : is a combination of an AND gate with an inverter
 An AND Gate followed by an inverter
 Whatever the output of the AND gate, it will be inverted by the inverter
 This is the formation of NAND gate and NAND operation is called
Universal Operation or gate.
 The sign and the table is shown below.

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 LOGIC GATES …
 NOR Gate is a combination of an OR gate with an inverter. An NOR Gate
followed by an inverter.
 The NOR operation is also a Universal Operation or Gate.
Truth table symbol NOR

Y=A+B

 Exclusive OR Gate
 An OR Gate recognizes with one or more 1s as inputs and gives output as 1
 The Exclusive-OR is different it recognizes only that have odd number of
1s. The following table shows different inputs and outputs.

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 LOGIC GATES …
 Exclusive OR Gate…

Y=AB+AB

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 LOGIC GATES …
 Exclusive NOR Gate: is abbreviated as XNOR. This is logically equivalent
to XOR gate followed by an inverter.
 Following figure shows the XNOR gate and the table of input and outputs

 List of Logic Gate Ics

 There are different Integrated Circuit (IC) technologies are used to
implement the basic logic gates
 CMOS (Complementary Metal – Oxide
Semiconductor),
 TTL (Transistor – Transistor Logic) and
 ECL (Emitter – Coupled Logic)
Reading assignment 10
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
 Boolean algebra: is a branch of mathematics that deals with binary variables
and logical operations.
 It forms the foundation for designing and analyzing digital circuits,
computer systems, and various logical decision-making processes.
 Boolean algebra operates on binary values, where each variable has one of
two possible states: 0 (false) or 1 (true).
 Here are some key concepts and properties:
 Basic Boolean Operations:
 AND: The output is true (1) only if both inputs are true, Y=𝐴⋅𝐵
 OR: The output is true if at least one input is true. Y= 𝐴+ 𝐵
 NOT: a unary operation that inverts the input's value. If 𝐴=1 then 𝐴=0 and
vice versa. 13
 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA …
Boolean Laws:

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 BOOLEAN ALGEBRA …
 Simplification of Boolean functions
 The algebraic forms of functions can often be simplified, which leads to
simpler and cheaper implementations
 E.g. simplify the following functions
F = A.B + A.B + B.C
= A. (B + B) + B.C
= A.1 + B.C
= A + B.C
e.g.2 Simplify the Boolean function F=AB+ BC + BC
F =AB + C(B + B)
F = AB + C
Exercise F=A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C + A.B.C ans F=BC+AC+BC 15
 COMBINATORIAL CIRCUITS
 Combinational Circuits: is connected arrangement of logic gates with a set of
inputs and outputs
 A combinational circuit is realized using AND, OR, NOT gates (or NAND or NOR
gates).

Block diagram of a combinational circuit

 Basic Building Blocks of Combinational Circuits
 The three basic types of gates to built combinational circuits are:
 AND Gates: Produce a high output (1) only if all inputs are high.
 OR Gates: Produce a high output if at least one input is high.
 NOT Gates: Invert the input signal (1 becomes 0, and 0 becomes 1).
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 COMBINATORIAL CIRCUITS …
 The several types of combinational circuits are: adder, subtractors, code converters,
decoders, encoders, digital multiplexers, demultiplexers, programmable logic
arrays, ROMs etc.
 Adders:
a. Half Adder
b. Full Adder
a. Half Adder: is a logic circuit which performs addition of two binary bits
Truth table for the addition of two binary bits.

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 COMBINATORIAL CIRCUITS …
a. Half Adder …
 The sum is equal to A XOR B.
 It means that the outputs of an EXCLUSIVE-OR gate will give the sum
 The carry is equal to A AND B.
 The output of an AND gate will give the carry

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 COMBINATORIAL CIRCUITS …
b. Full Adder: a logic circuit which performs addition of three binary bits
 Adds three single-bit binary numbers (two inputs and a carry input),
producing a sum and a carry output
 A full adder can be built using two half adders and an OR gate
Truth table of full adder

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 COMBINATORIAL CIRCUITS …
b. Full Adder …

 The logic diagram for the full adder

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 FLIP FLOPS
 A flip-flop is a sequential digital electronic circuit having two stable states that can be
used to store one bit of binary data.
 Flip-flops are the fundamental building blocks of all memory devices.
 The element that capable of storing data called latch or memory
 Latches and flip flops are the basic for elements of storing information
 There are the types of flip flop

a. The S-R Flip flop

b. Clocked S-R Flip-Flop
c. D Flip – Flop
d. J-K Flip-Flop

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 FLIP FLOPS …
A. The S-R Flip flop: the circuits has two inputs, s(Set) and R (Reset) and two outputs
Q and Q and
 working principles
 When S=1 and R=0, the flip-flop sets, making Q=1 and Q=0.
 When R=1 and S=0, the flip-flop resets, making Q=0 and Q=1.
 When both S and R are 0, the flip-flop maintains its previous (no change) state
 When both S and R are 1, the flip-flop enters an undefined ( invalid) state
 Implementation
 Construct using of two cross-coupled NAND gates or NOR gates
 Application:
 Used for memory storage and state control in digital systems.
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 FLIP FLOPS …
A. The S-R Flip flop:

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 FLIP FLOPS …
B. Clocked S-R Flip-Flop: is consists of a 3rd input in addition to set and reset inputs
and clocked input
 It is called as Gated RS flip-flop
 a clocked RS flip-flop’ s output changes as a result of a change in clock’s inputs
 Changes in output happen only during specific clock transitions (typically rising
or falling edges), which makes it synchronous.

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 FLIP FLOPS …
C. D Flip-Flop (Data Flip-Flop): constructed using an SR flip-flop with an inverter
(NOT gate) on the input
 Working Principle:
 One data input (D) and one clock input (CLK).
 On each clock edge, the value at D is transferred to the output (Q).
 Captures and stores input data on clock transitions.
 Implementation:
 Constructed using NAND or NOR gates with additional logic for clock control
 Applications:
 Used for data storage, shift registers, and synchronization in digital systems.

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 FLIP FLOPS …
C. D Flip-Flop (Data Flip-Flop)…

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 FLIP FLOPS …
D. J-K Flip-Flop: is designed due to invalid state of S=R=1 in the SR
 J=0, K=0, flip flop retains its preceding state. It neither sets nor resets itself, making it
stable.
 J=0, K=1, the input combination forces flip flop to reset, resulting in Q=0 and Q̅ =1.
It is often referred to as the “reset” state.
 J=1, K=0, flip flop resides in the set mode, causing Q=1 and Q̅ =0. It is known as the
“set” state.
 J=1, K=1, the combination toggles flip flop.
 If the previous state is Q=0, it switches to Q=1 and vice versa, this makes it valuable
for frequency division and data storage applications.

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 FLIP FLOPS …
D. J-K Flip-Flop:…

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 SEQUENTIAL CIRCUITS
 It is digital circuits that store and use previous state information to determine the next
state
 It is used in digital systems to implement state machines, timers, counters, and
memory elements.
 The memory elements in sequential circuits can be implemented using flip-flops,
 Sequential circuit is a combinational logic circuit that consists of inputs variable,
logic gates (Computational circuit), and output variable

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End of Chapter
One
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Question ???

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