Chapter 3

Common Digital Components

1
 Outlin
e
 Integrated Circuits
 Decoders, multiplexers and registers
 Binary counters
 Memory units

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 Integrated Circuits
 Digital circuits are constructed with integrated circuits.
 an integrated circuits (IC)is a small silicon semiconductor crystal called chip,
containing the electronic components for the digital gates.
 The various gates are interconnected inside the chip to form the circuit
 the number of pins may range from 14 in a small IC package to 100or more in
a larger package
 As the technology of IC’s has improved, the number of gates that can be put
in a single chip has increased considerably.
 The differentiation between those chips that have a few internal gates and
having hundreds or thousands of gates is made by a customary reference to a
package as being either a small·, medium·, or large-scale integration device
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 Integrated Circuits…
 Small-scale integration (SSI): devices contain several independent gates in
a single package
 The inputs and outputs of the gates are connected directly to the pins in the
package.
 The number of gates is less than 10 and is limited by the number of pins
available in the IC
 Medium-scale integration (MSI): devices have a complexity of
approximately10 to 200 gates in a single package
 They usually perform specific elementary digital functions such as decoders,
adders, and registers.

4
 Integrated Circuits…
 Large-scale integration (LSI): devices contain between 200 and a few
thousand gates in a single package.
 They include digital systems, such as processors, memory chips, and
programmable modules
 Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) devices contain thousands of gates
TTL within a single package.
 E.g. large memory arrays and complex microcomputer chips
 VLSI devices have revolutionized the computer system design technology,
giving designers the capability to create structures economical.
 small size and low cost
 Digital integrated circuits are classified by
 logic operation and specific circuit technology to which they belong 5
 Integrated Circuits…
 Many different logic families of integrated circuits have been introduced
commercially
 The following are the most popular
 TTL Transistor-transistor logic
 ECL Emitter-coupled logic
 MOS Metal-oxide semiconductor
 CMOS Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor
 The transistor-transistor logic family used diodes and transistors for the
basic NAND gate
 This technology was called DTL, for "diode-transistor logic.“
 Later the diodes were replaced by transistors to improve the circuit
operation and the name of the logic family was changed to "transistor-
transistor logic. 6
 Integrated Circuits…
 There are several variations of the TTL family
 E.g. high-speed TTL, low-power TTL, etc .
 The power supply voltage for TTL circuits is 5 volts, and the two logic
levels are approximately 0 and 3.5 volts.
 Emitter-coupled logic (ECL) family provides the highest-speed digital
circuits in integrated form
 ECL is used in systems such as supercomputers and signal processors where
high speed is essential
 The transistors in ECL gates operate in a nonsaturated state, a condition that
allows the achievement of propagation delays of 1 to 2 nanoseconds

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 Integrated Circuits…
 Metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) is a unipolar transistor that depends on
the flow of only one type of carrier, which may be electrons (n-channel) or
holes (p-channel).
 This is in contrast to the bipolar transistor used in TTL and ECL gates,
where both carriers exist during normal operation.
 A p-channel MOS is referred to as PMOS and an n-channel as NMOS
 NMOS is the one that is commonly used in circuits with only one type of
MOS transistor
 Complementary MOS (CMOS) technology uses PMOS and NMOS
transistors connected in a complementary fashion in all circuits.

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 Integrated Circuits…
 The advantages of CMOS over bipolar are the high packing density of
circuits, a simpler processing technique during fabrication, and a more
economical operation because of low power consumption

 Decoders
 Discrete quantities of information are represented in digital computers with
 binary codes.
 A binary code of n bits is capable of representing up to 2n distinct elements
of the coded information.
 A decoder is a combinational circuit that converts binary information from

the n coded inputs to a maximum of 2n unique outputs.

 If the n-bit coded information has unused bit combinations, the decoder may
9
n
have less than 2 outputs
 Decoders
 The decoders presented in are called n-to-m-line decoders, where m<=2n.
 A decoder has n inputs and m outputs and is also referred to as an n x m
decoder.
 The three data inputs, Ao, A1, and A,, are decoded into eight outputs, each
output representing one of the combinations of the three binary input
variables

1
0
 Decoders…
 The three inverters provide the complement of the inputs, and each of the
eight AND gates generates one of the binary combination
 Commercial decoders include one or more enable inputs to control the
operation of the circuit
 The decoder is enabled when E is equal to 1 and disabled when E is equal
to 0
 When the enable input E is equal to 0, all the outputs are equal to 0
regardless of the values of the other three data inputs.
 The three x's in the table designate don't-care conditions.
 When the enable input is equal to 1, the decoder operates in a normal
fashion
1
1
Decoders…

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2
 Decoders…
 NAND Gate Decoder
 Some decoders are constructed with NAND instead of AND gates.
 Since a NAND gate produces the AND operation with an inverted output, it
becomes more economical to generate the decoder outputs in their
complement form
 A 2-to-4-line decoder with an enable input constructed with NAND gates

1
3
 Decoders…
 Encoders : is a digital circuit that performs the inverse operation of a decoder.
 An encoder has 2n (or less) input lines and n output lines. The output lines
 generate the binary code corresponding to the input value

1
4
 Encoders …
 The encoder can be implemented with OR gates whose inputs are determined
directly from the truth table. Output
 Ao = 1 if the input octal digit is 1 or 3 or 5 or 7.
 Similar conditions apply for the other two outputs.
 These conditions can be expressed by the following Boolean functions:
 Ao = D1 + D3 + D5 + D7
 A1 = D2 + D3 + D6 + D7
 A2 = D4 + D5 + D6 + D7
 The encoder can be implemented with three OR gates.

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5
 Number systems
b. Positional Number System
 The total number of digits present in any number system is called its Base or
Radix.
 Every number is represented by a base (or radix) x, which represents x digits.
 The base is written after the number as subscript such as
 It is a Decimal number as its base is 10.
 To determine the quantity that the number represents, the number is multiplied
by an integer power of x depending on the position it is located and then finds
the sum of the weighted digits.
 E.g. Consider a decimal number which can be represented in equivalent value
as: 5x102 + 1x101 + 2x100 + 4x10-1 + 5x10-2
1
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 Number systems
b. Positional Number System
 The total number of digits present in any number system is called its Base or
Radix.
 Every number is represented by a base (or radix) x, which represents x digits.
 The base is written after the number as subscript such as
 It is a Decimal number as its base is 10.
 To determine the quantity that the number represents, the number is multiplied
by an integer power of x depending on the position it is located and then finds
the sum of the weighted digits.
 E.g. Consider a decimal number which can be represented in equivalent value
as: 5x102 + 1x101 + 2x100 + 4x10-1 + 5x10-2
1
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 Positional Number System

Decimal Number System

 It is the most widely used number system.
 The decimal number system consists of 10 digits from 0 to 9.
 It has 10 digits and hence its base or radix is 10.
 These digits can be used to represent any numeric value.
 Example: 123(10), 456(10), 7890(10).

Consider a decimal number 542.76(10) which can be represented in equivalent

value as: 5x102 + 4x101 + 2x100 + 7x10-1 + 6x10-2

1
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 Positional Number System…

Binary Number System

 Digital computer represents all kinds of data and information in the binary
system.
 Binary number system consists of two digits 0 (low voltage) and 1 (high
voltage).
 Its base or radix is 2.
 Each digit or bit in binary number system can be 0 or 1.
 The positional values are expressed in power of 2.

 E.g. 1011(2), 111(2), 100001(2)

 Consider a binary number 11011.10(2) which can be represented in equivalent

value as:
1
9
 Positional Number System…

 Binary Number System…

Note: In the binary number 11010(2)

 The left most bit 1 is the highest order bit is called Most Significant Bit
 The right most bit 0 is the lower bit called as Least Significant Bit
 Octal Number System:
 The octal number system has digits starting from 0 to 7.
 The base or radix of this system is 8.
 The positional values are expressed in power of 8.
 Any digit in this system is always less than 8.

 E.g. 123(8) , 236(8) , 564(8) 2

0
 Positional Number System…

 Octal Number System…

 The number 6418 is not a valid octal number because 8 is not a valid digit.
 Consider a Octal number 234.56(8) which can be represented in equivalent

value as: 2x82 + 3x81 + 4x80 + 5x8-1 + 6x8-2

 Hexadecimal Number System

 The hexadecimal number system consists of 16 digits from 0 to 9 and A to F.
 The letters A to F represent decimal numbers from 10 to 15.
 That is, ‘A’ represents 10, ‘B’ represents 11, ‘C’ represents 12, ‘D’ represents
13, ‘E’ represents 14 and ‘F’ represents 15.
2
1
 Positional Number System…

 Hexadecimal Number System …

 The base or radix of this number system is 16.

e.g. A4(16) , 1AB(16) , 934(16) , C(16)

 Consider a Hexadecimal number 5AF.D(16) which can be represented in

equivalent value as: 5x162 + Ax161 + Fx160 + Dx16-1

2
2
 NumberSystem Conversions
 Convert from Binary to Decimal, Octal and Hex

 Conversion from Octal and Hex to Decimal:

 Cont’d …
 Convert from Decimal to Binary and Hex:
Binary Arithmetic
 Binary Addition
 It involves addition, subtraction, multiplication and division operations.
 Binary arithmetic is much simpler to learn because system deals with only
two digit 0’s and 1’s.
 When binary arithmetic operations are performed on binary numbers, the
results are also 0’s and 1’s
 Binary Addition
 The addition of two binary numbers is performed in same manner as the
addition of decimal number.
The basic rules of binary addition are:
Binary Arithmetic …
 E.g. Add 75 and 18 in binary number

 Add binary number 1011.011 and 1101.111

Binary Arithmetic …
 Binary Subtraction
 This operation is same as the one performed in the decimal system.
 This operation is consists of two steps:
 Determine whether it is necessary for us to borrow.
 If the subtrahend (the lower digit) is larger than the minuend (the upper
digit), it is necessary to borrow from the column to the left. In binary two is
borrowed.
 Subtract the lower value from the upper value
 The basic rules of binary subtraction are:
Minuend Subtrahend Difference Borrow

0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
Binary Arithmetic …
 Binary Subtraction
 When we subtract 1 from 0, it is necessary to borrow 1 from the next left
column i.e. from the next higher order position
E.g. Subtract the following number
a) 10 from 14 b) 9 from 29 c) 3 from 5

e.g. Add 75 and -18 in binary number.

75 = 64 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 1001011
18 = 16 + 2 = 10010
Data representation in computer
 Data is representation using binary numbers in terms of 0’s and 1’s
 Bit- is representation of 1 or 0
 Nibble: is a group of four consecutive bits
 Byte: is a group of eight consecutive bits
 A group of two nibbles can form a byte
 Word: is a group of 16 bits, 32bits or 64 bits
 It is also group two, four or 8 bytes together form a word
 When we working in hexadecimal calculations since each hexadecimal
digit is represented with a nibble
 When grouping bits of 1’s and 0’s together, there are a variety of methods
for interpreting them.
 Each method of interpreting the sequence of bits is called a bit model.
 Representation of Singed Integers
 The digital computer handle both positive and negative integer.
 It means, is required for representing the sign of the number (- or +), but
cannot use the sign (-) to denote the negative number or sign (+) to
denote the positive number.
 this is done by adding the leftmost bit to the number called sign bit.
 A positive number has a sign bit 0, while the negative has a sign bit 1.
 It is also called as fixed point representation
 A negative signed integer can be represented in one of the following:
 Sign and magnitude method
 One’s complement method
 Two’s complement method
 Representation of Singed Integers …
 Magnitude-only Bit : this model is for non-negative decimal numbers
 It is the simplest model since each bit represents an integer power of 2.
 With an 8-bit value, the store a value is in the range of 0 to 255.
00000000 = 0
00000001 = 1
00000010 = 2
00000011 = 3
… Magnitude only
11111101 = 253
11111110 = 254
11111111 = 255
 In this representation, the left most bit is considered the most-significant bit
and the rightmost bit as the least-significant bit. (e.g., 10110101)
 When adding numbers, adding bits together starting from the least-
significant bit to the most-significant bit
 Representation of Singed Integers
 Magnitude-only Bit Model …

 Notice that there can be an overflow.

 There is a limit to the values that can store with just one byte. Hence, we often use
more than one byte to represent numbers in our software.
 When dealing with combinations of bytes, we can have groups of 8 bits to store
words to provide a larger range of values.
 E.g. sequence of 4 bytes can represent: 10011001 00001110 01111001 00111001

= (10011001 * 224) + (00001110 * 216) + (01111001 * 28) + (00111001 * 20)

= (153 * 16,777,216) + (14 * 65,536) + (121 * 256) + (57 * 1)
= 2,567,862,585
 Representation of Singed Integers
 Magnitude-only Bit Model …
 a table that shows the range of numbers that can be stored when using
combinations of bytes together using the magnitude-only bit model

 In C, the magnitude-only bit model is used with unsigned types

 Representation of Singed Integers…
 Sign-Magnitude Bit : allows negative decimal numbers
 It is the simplest strategy for representing negative numbers.
 It has a smaller magnitude range of -127 to +127 for a single byte.
 The most- significant bit use as sign bit
 0 positive sign bit value and 1  a negative value.
00000000 = 0
00000001 = 1
00000010 = 2
…
01111110 = 126 sign magnitude
01111111 = 127
10000000 = -0
10000001 = -1
10000010 = -2
…
11111110 = -126
11111111 = -127
 Representation of Singed Integers…
 Sign-Magnitude Bit Model…
 If the signs of the two numbers are the same, we simply add the magnitudes as
unsigned numbers and leave the sign bit intact
 However, we need to be careful about overflow

 If the signs differ, we need to subtract the smaller magnitude from the
larger magnitude, and keep the sign of the larger magnitude
 Representation of Singed Integers…
 1’s Complement representation
 This is the simplest method of representing negative binary number.
 The 1’s complement of a binary number is obtained by changing each 0 to
1 and each 1 to 0.
 In other words, change each bit in the number to its complement.
 Example 1: Find the 1’s complement of 101000.

 Ex :Find the 1’s complement of 1010111

 Representation of Singed Integers…
 2’s Complement representation:
 The 2’s complement of a binary number is obtained by taking 1’s
complement of the number and adding 1 to the Least Significant Bit
(LSB) position.
 The general procedure to find 2’s complement is given by:
 2’s Complement = 1’s Complement + 1
 Find the 2’s complement of 101000.
 Original number

 1’s complement
 Add 1 to LSB
 2’s complement
 Bit Models…
 2’s Complement …
 To determine the magnitude of a negative number, we perform the exact same
steps:
11101101 = -19
00010010 flip bits
00010011 add one
Ee.00010011
Find the= 1’s
19 magnitude
and 2’s complement of 1011101.

 Negation: It is the operation of converting

a positive number to its negative equivalent
or a negative number to its positive
equivalent. Negation is performed by
performing 2’s complement system.
 Example 1: Consider the number +12. Its
binary representation is 01100(2).
 Fixed- and floating-point systems
 Real Numbers - numbers with fractional component
 Two major approaches to store real numbers •
 Fixed Point Notation
 Floating Point Notation.
 Fixed point notation -there are a fixed number of digits after the decimal
point (Integer . Fraction)
 This representation has fixed number of bits for integer part and for
fractional part.
 E.g. if given fixed-point representation is IIII.FFFF, then you can store
minimum value is 0000.0001 and maximum value is 9999.9999.
 There are three parts of a fixed-point number representation:
 the sign field, integer field, and fractional field
 Fixed- and floating-point systems
 Fixed point notation …

We can represent these numbers using:

 signed representation: range -(2(k-1) -1) to (2 (k-1) -1) for k-bits
 1’s complement representation: range -(2(k-1) -1) to (2 (k-1) -1) for k-bits
 2 ‘s complement representation: range -(2(k-1) -1) to (2 (k-1) -1) for k-bits
 2’s complementation representation is preferred in computer system
because of unambiguous property and easier for arithmetic operations.
 E.g. Assume number is using 32-bit format which reserve 1 bit for the sign, 15
bits for the integer part and 16 bits for the fractional part.
 -43.625 is represented as
 Fixed- and floating-point systems
 Fixed point notation …
 0 is used to represent positive and 1 is used to represent negative
 000000000101011 is 15 bit binary value for decimal 43 and
1010000000000000 is 16 bit binary value for fractional 0.625
 Fixed- and floating-point systems
 Floating point number - allows for a varying number of digits after the
decimal point (Integer . Fraction)
 does not reserve a specific number of bits for the integer part or the
fractional part.
 The floating number representation of a number has two part:
 The first part represents a signed fixed point number called mantissa
 The second part of designates the position of the decimal(or binary) point
and is called exponent.
 The fixed point mantissa may be fraction or an integer.
 Floating -point is always interpreted to represent a number in mantissa m
and exponent e are physically represented in the register (including sign).
 Fixed- and floating-point systems
 A floating-point number is said to be normalized if the most significant
digit of the mantissa is 1

 actual number is (-1)s(1+m)x2(e-Bias), where s is the sign bit, m is the

mantissa, e is the exponent value, and Bias is the bias number
 According to IEEE 754 standard, the floating-point number is represented
in following ways:
 Half Precision (16 bit): 1 sign bit, 5 bit exponent, and 10 bit mantissa
 Single Precision (32 bit): 1 sign bit, 8 bit exponent, and 23 bit mantissa
 Double Precision (64 bit): 1 sign bit, 11 bit exponent, and 52 bit mantissa
 Quadruple Precision (128 bit): 1 sign bit, 15 bit exponent, and 112 bit
mantissa
 Fixed- and floating-point systems
E.g. Suppose number is using 32-bit format: the 1 bit sign bit, 8 bits for signed
exponent, and 23 bits for the fractional part.
The leading bit 1 is not stored (as it is always 1 for a normalized number) and
is referred to as a “hidden bit”.
 Then −53.5 is normalized as -53.5=(-110101.1)2=(-1.101011)x2 5 , which is
represented as following below,

 00000101 is the 8-bit binary value of exponent value +5.

 Computer Codes
 Computer code helps us to represent characters in a coded form in the
memory of the computer.
 These codes represent specific formats which are used to record data.
 Some of the commonly used computer codes are:
 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)
 American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
 BCD code (or Weighted BCD Code or 8421 Code)
 BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal.
 It is one of the early computer codes.
 In this coding system, the bits are given from left to right, the weights
8,4,2,1 respectively.
 Computer Codes…
 BCD code (or Weighted BCD Code or 8421 Code) …
 The BCD equivalent of each decimal digit is shown in table

 Convert the decimal number 537 into BCD.

 Computer Codes…
 BCD code (or Weighted BCD Code or 8421 Code) …
 In 4-bit BCD only 24=16 configurations are possible which is insufficient
to represent the various characters.
 Hence 6-bit BCD code was developed by adding two zone positions with

which it is possible to represent 26=64 characters

 EBCDIC
 It stand for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.
 This was developed by IBM.
 It uses an 8-bit code and hence possible to represent 256 different
characters or bit combinations
 EBCDIC is used on most computers and computer equipment today.
 Computer Codes…
 EBCDIC…
 It is a coding method generally used by larger computers (mainframes) to
present letters, numbers or other symbols in a binary language the
computer can understand
 EBCDIC is an 8-bit code; therefore, it is divided into two 4-bit groups,
where each 4-bit can be represented as 1 hexadecimal digit.
 ASCII
 It stands for the American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
 It is a 7-bit code, which is possible to represent 27=128 characters.
 It is used in most microcomputers and minicomputers and in mainframes.
 ASCII code (Pronounced ask-ee) is of two types – ASCII-7 and ASCII-8
 Computer Codes…
 ASCII …
 ASCII-7 is 7-bit code for representing English characters as numbers, with
each letter assigned a number from 0 to 127.
 E.g. The ASCII code for uppercase M is 77.
 Representation of records and arrays
 A record is a data structure made up of a fixed number of information items,
not necessarily of the same type.
 Records are useful when the items are to be referred to by name
 In C records are of the type structure.
 An array is a data structure made up of a fixed number of information items
in sequence; all items are required to be of the same type.
 arrays are useful when the items are to be referred to by their positions in the
 sequence.
 Records and arrays allow related items of information to be treated as a
group
End of Chapter Two
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