TELECOMMUNICATIO

NS ENGINEERING

Cellular Mobile
Communications

Cellular Concepts

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering

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 Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN)

 The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is the network of the world's
public circuit-switched telephone networks.

 It consists of telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave transmission links, cellular
networks, communications satellites, and undersea telephone cables, all inter-
connected by switching centers, thus allowing any telephone in the world to
communicate with any other.
 Originally a network of “fixed-line” analog telephone systems, the PSTN is now
almost entirely digital in its core and includes mobile as well as fixed telephones.

 The technical operation of the PSTN utilizes standards created by the ITU-T.

 These standards allow different networks in different countries to interconnect

seamlessly.
 There is also a single global address space for telephone numbers based on the
E.163 and E.164 standards.
 The combination of the interconnected networks and the single numbering plan
make it possible for any phone in the world to dial any other phone. 2
 Mobile Network Vs.
Fixed Network

Mobile Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks

 Higher loss-rates due to interference

 emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning
 Restrictive regulations of frequencies
 frequencies have to be coordinated; useful frequencies are almost all occupied
 Low transmission rates
 local some Mbit/s, regional currently, e.g., 9.6kbit/s with GSM
 Higher delays, higher jitter
 connection setup time with GSM in the second range, several hundred milliseconds for
other wireless systems
 Lower security, simpler active attacking
 radio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated, thus attracting
calls from mobile phones
 Always shared medium
 secure access mechanisms important
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 Cell Concept

 Refers to communications systems, especially the Advance Mobile Phone

Service (AMPS), that divide a geographic region into sections, called cells.

 The purpose of this division is to make the most efficient use of a limited
number of transmission frequencies.

 Each connection, or conversation, requires its own dedicated frequency, and the
total number of available frequencies is about 1,000.

 To support more than 1,000 simultaneous conversations, cellular systems allocate

a set number of frequencies for each cell.

 Two cells can use the same frequency for different conversations so long as the
cells are not adjacent to each other.

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 Wireless Communication
Systems

 Coverage over a large area

 Coverage to a large number of users

 Maintain an acceptable level of quality

 Large Capacity

 Efficient use of Resources (Spectrum)

 Availability

 Adaptability to traffic density

 Better service to mobile terminals

 Better Quality of Service

 Affordable
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 Wireless Systems

 A single tower at the center called a Base Station (BS).

 Powerful transmitter attached to top of base station.

 Coverage area increased by making tower taller and/or increasing
transmission power.

 The receiver is called the Mobile Station (MS). It may be an ordinary mobile
phone.

 Does this model satisfy our goals?

 Large coverage area –yes
 High call quality - yes
 Limited number of users –That's the problem!
 GSM has a limit on the number of users due to frequency limitations.
 Because a few spectrum is available for the communication.

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 Cellular Concept

 To mitigate the spectrum shortage we can reuse the same spectrum over and
over! This is known as Channel (Frequency) Reuse.

 Refers to the intelligent allocation and reuse of channels throughout different

coverage areas which are separated from one another by sufficient
distances so that co-channel interference is not objectionable.

 But we have to consider the Co-channel interference.

 Interference caused by transmissions on the same channel (e.g. same

frequency).

 To avoid the Co-channel interference a Reuse distance needs to be maintained.

 Minimum distance between two cells using same channel for satisfactory
signal to noise ratio.
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 Cellular Concept

 Base stations (BS) are implemented in space division multiplex.

 Instead of covering the whole area with one transmitter (base station) of high
power we deploy multiple base stations of moderate (lower) power.
 Each base station covers some specific area.
 Each base station is assigned a portion of the total number of channels,
while neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of channels
so that the interference between base stations (and mobile users) is
minimized.
 Spacing the base stations systematically and allocating the channels
appropriately results in minimizing the co-channel interference.
 Cluster: group of nearby BSs that together use all available channels.

 Mobile Stations (MS) communicate only via the base station, using FDMA,
TDMA, CDMA etc.

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 Cellular Concept

 Cell size:
 100 m in cities to 35 km on the country side (GSM)
 even less for higher frequencies
 Umbrella cell: large cell that includes several smaller cells
 Avoid frequent hand-offs for fast moving traffic

 Cell shape:
 Hexagonal is useful for theoretical analysis (it closely
approximates the circle)
 Practical footprint (radio coverage area) is amorphous

 BS placement:
 Center-excited cell: BS near center of cell
 omni-directional antenna
 Edge-excited cell: BSs on three of the six cell vertices'
 sectored directional antennas

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 Cellular Concept

 Advantages:  Problems:

 higher capacity, higher  fixed network needed for the

number of users base stations
 handover necessary
 less transmission power  interference with co-channel,
needed adjacent-channel

 more robust, decentralized  Important Issues:

 base station deals with  Cell sizing; Frequency reuse

interference, transmission planning
area etc. locally  Channel allocation strategies

Bottom line: Attempt to maximize availability of channels in an area

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 Frequency Reuse

 The total number of channels are divided into N groups/cells.

 N is called cluster size (N is the number of cells per cluster).

 K is called the frequency reuse factor, where K = 1/N.
 Each cell is assigned one of the groups.
 The same group can be reused by two different cells provided that they are
sufficiently far apart.

 Extensive frequency reuse allows for many users to be supported at the same time.

 Total spectrum allocated to the service provider is broken up into smaller

bands. A cell is assigned one of these bands. This means all communications
(transmissions to and from users) in this cell occur over these frequencies only.

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 Frequency Reuse

 Neighboring cells are assigned a different frequency band.

 This ensures that nearby transmissions do not interfere with each other.

 The same frequency band is reused in another cell that is far away. This large
distance limits the interference caused by this co-frequency cell.

 Example of Frequency Reuse:

 Cells using the same frequencies

 Each different color represents

different frequency.
 5 different frequencies are being

used repeatedly.  So, here N = 5

Figure 1: Frequency Reuse

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 Frequency Reuse: 7 Cell
Reuse

Figure 2: Illustration of Cellular Frequency Reuse Concept

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Frequency Reuse: 19
Cell Reuse

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 Example

 Example 1:
Given that, the cell cluster size N = 7, frequency reuse factor = 1/7. Assume total
number of channels is 490. How many channels per cell are there? If the Clusters
are replicated 3 times then what is the total number of channels in that system?

 Solution:

Assume T = 490,
Total channels, N = 7,

So channels per cell are T/N = 70 channels/cell

Clusters are replicated 3 times

So system capacity = 3x490 = 1470 total channel.

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 Cell Coordinate System

 From geometry of grid of hexagons

only certain values of N are possible
if replicating cluster with out gaps

N = i2+ ij + j2,
where i and j are non-negative
integers.

 To find co-channel neighbors of

a cell, move i cells along any chain
of hexagons, turn 60 degrees
counter clockwise, and
move j cells.

Figure 3: Cell A is represented by (2,1). i=2, j=1, N=7

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 Distance to Co-channel
Cell

Where N = i2+ij+j2

Note:
i and j are integers.

R = cell radius.

Area of hexagon = 2.61xR2

Figure 4: Distance to Co-channel Cell

D = distance to co-channel cell. 17
 Channel Assignment
Strategies

 Fixed Channel Assignments  Dynamic Channel Assignments

 Voice channels are not
 Each cell is allocated a
allocated to different cells
predetermined set of voice
permanently.
channels.  Each time a call request is
made, the serving base station
 If all the channels in that cell requests a channel from the
are occupied, the call is MSC.
blocked, and the subscriber  The switch then allocates a
does not receive service.
channel to the requested call
based on a decision algorithm
 Variation includes a borrowing taking into account different
strategy: a cell is allowed to factors: frequency re-use of
borrow channels from a candidate channel and cost
neighboring cell if all its own factors.
channels are occupied. This is  Dynamic channel assignment
supervised by the MSC. is more complex (real time), but
reduces likelihood of blocking. 18
 Interference and System
Capacity

Major limiting factor in performance of cellular radio systems is the interference.

 Sources of interference:
 other mobiles in same cell.
 A call in progress in a neighboring cell.
 Other base stations operating in the same frequency band.
 Non-cellular system leaking energy into the cellular frequency band.

 Effect of interference:
 voice channel: cross talk.
 control channel: missed or blocked calls.

 Mainly two types of Interferences are there:

 Co-channel interference.
 Adjacent channel interference.
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 Co-Channel
Interference

 Cells that use the same set of frequencies are called co-channel cells.

 Interference between the cells is called co-channel interference.

Co-channel reuse ratio: Q = D/R

R: radius of cell
D: distance between centers of the nearest co-channel cells
Small Q small cluster size N large capacity
large Q good transmission quality

 Trade-off must be made in actual cellular design.

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 Signal-to-interference (S/I)
ratio

 S = Signal Strength (power).

 I = co-channel interference strength (power).
 Ii = power of co-channel interference from i th cell.

 To find total interference, sum up interference power from all cells:

 Pr = Power received.
 Po = Power at a nearby point (do).
 do = distance of the near by point.
 d = distance of the co channel.
 n = path loss exponent, depends on environment.
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 Signal-to-interference (S/I)
ratio

 Converting this to the form above:

 S = Po = worst-case signal is measured at the outer edge of the cell.
 do = distance to where S is measured = R .
 Ii = Pr = Power of interference from the i th cell (received power from co-channel cells is
not desired, and is therefore interference).
 d = distance to the i th cell Di .

 Substituting into the S/I equation:

N Q S/I
i=1,j=1 3 3 11.3
i=2,j=0 4 3.46 13.78
i=2,j=1 7 4.58 18.65
i=3,j=0 9 5.2 20.86

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 Increasing
Capacity

 Frequency borrowing:
 frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells.

 Cell splitting:
 cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells.

 Cell sectoring:
 cells are divided into a number of wedge-shaped sectors, each with their own
set of channels.

 Microcells:
 antennas move to buildings, hills, and lamp posts.

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 Cell Splitting

 Subdivide a congested cell into smaller cells.

 Each with its own base station,

reduction in antenna and transmitter
Power.

 More cells more clusters

higher capacity.

 Achieves capacity improvement

by essentially rescaling the system.
Figure 5: Cell splitting from radius R to R/2
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 Cell Sectoring

 In basic form, antennas are omni-directional.

 Replacing a single omni-directional antenna at base station with several

directional antennas, each radiating within a specified sector.

 Sectoring achieves capacity improvement by essentially rescaling the system.

 It has less co-channel interference, number of cells in a cluster can be

reduced.
 Frequency reuse factor is larger results in a larger capacity.

Figure 6: Cell Sectoring

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 Interference by
Sectorization

N Q S/I [dB]
i=2,j=1 7 4.58 23.42 (1200)
i=2,j=1 7 4.58 26.43 (600)
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 Handover/
Handoff

 The process of transferring a mobile user from one channel or base station to
another.

 important task in any cellular radio system.

 must be performed successfully,

infrequently, and imperceptible to users.

 identify a new base station.

 channel allocation in new base station.

 high priority than initiation request

Figure 7: Handover/ Handoff
(block new calls rather than drop existing calls)

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 Hand-off
Parameter

 PMIN_USABLE is the minimum usable

signal level.

 PHANDOFF is the threshold received

signal level at which a handoff will
be initiated.
∆ = PHANDOFF – PMIN_USABLE  Successful Handoff
 no call loss occurs
 We must have an optimize ∆.
 Too large => too many
handoffs .
 Too small => too many lost
calls.

 Value of ∆ depends on:

 Environment.
 Expected mobile speeds.  Unsuccessful Handoff
 Time required to perform a  call loss occurs
handoff.

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 Performance of Handoffs

 Handoff is accounting for varying mobile speeds. It also affects design phase of
cellular system. So what size of cells should be used?

 Large Cells (Macrocellular)

 Cell radii several km
 High speed mobiles
 Problem: Cells too large to provide required capacity for dense user bases.

 Small Cells (Microcellular)

 Cell radii only 100-200 m
 Low-speed mobiles
 Problem: Excessive handoffs occur when high-speed mobiles are present.

 Umbrella Cells
 Combine large and small cells
 Microcells increase system capacity
 Macrocells reduce load on system due to excessive handoffs
 Allows for increased capacity while reducing number of handoffs.
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Umbrella Cell

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END

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