RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
DR. CHITRA RAVI
DIRECTOR
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE STUDIES
CMR UNIVERSITY
BANGALORE
 COURSE OUTLINE

1. Meaning of Research
2. Scientific knowledge
3. Common sense knowledge
4. Objectives of Research
5. Scientific Research
6. Characteristics of Research
7. Motivation in Research
8. Significance of Research
9. Types of Research
10.Criteria of Good Research
11.Research methods vs Methodology
12.Research and Scientific method
13.Research process
 Meaning of Research

• Search for knowledge

• Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information
on a specific topic
• Art of scientific investigation through search for new facts
in any branch of knowledge
• Research is the continual search for truth using scientific
method -study, investigation, observation, comparison
and/or experimentation
 Meaning of Research

According to Clifford Woody,

Research comprises
1. defining and redefining problems (enunciating
problem-(to make a clear statement of ideas and
beliefs)
2. formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions
3. collecting, organizing and analyzing data
4. making deductions and reaching conclusions
5. carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 Meaning of Research

• D. Steiner and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social

Sciences define research as
• “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the
purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge,
whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in
the practice of an art.”
• Social Science Research is the activity of
gathering, analyzing and interpreting information
for a variety of social, economic, educational and
political purposes.
 Meaning of
Research
Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary defines research as
• "studious inquiry or examination
• investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and
interpretation of facts
• revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts,
or
• practical application of such new or revised theories or laws".
 Knowledge

Knowledge can be defined as:

• concepts and factual information (data),
• their interrelated structures and patterns, concerning the
natural and social environment
• theoretical and practical understanding of the world,
people and society, gained through learning and/or
experience.
Knowledge means skills, facts, or information acquired by
any person, through experience or education.
 Scientific knowledge
Science consists of :
• a body of knowledge and
• the process by which that knowledge is produced
Scientific Knowledge comprises :
• laws and theories to explain a phenomenon or behavior of interest that are acquired using the
scientific method
• Laws are observed patterns of phenomena or behaviors
• Theories are systematic explanations of the underlying phenomenon or behavior
• Scientific Knowledge characteristics:
• Rational -based on or in accordance with reason or logic.
• Propositional -solved or proved to be true or not true
• Logical – sound reasoning
• Deductive - inference of particular instances from a general law
• Inductive – based on observations, evidence, patterns
• Systematic – methodical as per specific system
 Scientific
knowledge
Scientific Knowledge is likely to be demonstrated, either through
rational procedures (formal sciences) or by the contrast with the
data of empirical reality (natural sciences).
Formal sciences
• the study of formal systems, such as those under
the branches of logic and mathematics
Natural sciences
• the study of natural phenomena (including
cosmological, geological, physical, chemical, and
biological factors of the universe).
 Scientific
knowledge
• Scientific Knowledge is generated as scientists
• analyze and interpret their data
• generate hypotheses, theories, or laws which help explain their results
• Add them to the previously available body of scientific knowledge
• This is tested by scientists through
• Additional experiments
• Observations
• Modeling
• Theoretical studies
 Scientific
knowledge
• The body of scientific knowledge builds on previous ideas and is constantly
growing.
• Peer Review: It is deliberately shared with colleagues where scientists
comment on each other's work
• Publication in the scientific literature: It can be evaluated and integrated
into the body of scientific knowledge by the larger community.
• Scientific knowledge is subject to change, as new data are collected, and
reinterpretations of existing data are made.
• Major theories, which are supported by multiple lines of evidence, are
rarely completely changed, but new data and tested explanations can add
nuances and details to them.
 Scientific
knowledge
• A scientific way of thinking inherently includes
creativity in approaching explanations while staying
within the confines of the data.
• The scientific process is a way of building knowledge
and making predictions that
• can be tested
• are accepted as scientific law
 Common sense knowledge
• Common sense is the routine knowledge that all humans have
of our everyday world and activities.
• Common sense is a form of practical decision-making and the ability to
imagine the consequences of something we do.
• It is something that we learn through experience and
curiosity without even being aware of it.
• It includes facts about
events occurring in time
effects of actions by the knower and others
physical objects and how they are perceived, their properties
and their relations to one another.
 Common Sense Knowledge

• Examples of common sense

• going to the doctor when feeling very ill for a prolonged period
of time
• not picking a fight with someone twice our size
• looking both ways before crossing the street

• Commonsense reasoning simulates the human ability

to use commonsense knowledge to make
presumptions about the type and essence of ordinary
situations they encounter every day, and to change
their "minds" should new information come to light.
 Objectives Of Research

 The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions by applying scientific procedures

 The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden, and which has not been
discovered as yet.
Objectives:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (exploratory or
formulative research studies)
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group(descriptive research studies)
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (Diagnostic research studies)
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (Hypothesis-testing research
studies)
 Scientific research

• Scientific research is research conducted for the purpose

of contributing towards science by the systematic
collection, interpretation and evaluation of data in a
planned manner.
• Example :
• Researcher can gather and analyze the data from the
social anxiety survey to determine if there is a relationship
between social anxiety and cell phone use.
• During this stage, scientists determine whether or not
their findings are statistically significant.
 Scientific research

• Steps involved in performing Scientific Research

• Define a Question to Investigate (Problem statement)
• Data collection - (observations, surveys, case studies,etc.)
• Make Predictions –(formulate hypothesis)
• Analyze the Data –(Data interpretation, inference, hypothesis
testing)
• Draw Conclusions
 Characteristics of research

• Empirical - based on observations and experimentation

• Systematic - follows orderly and sequential procedure
• Controlled - all variables except those that are
tested/experimented upon are kept constant.
• Employs hypothesis - guides the investigation process.
 Motivation in
Research
• Desire to get Research degree along with consequential benefits
• Desire to face challenges in solving unsolved problems
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative and innovative
work
• Desire to be of service to society
• Desire to get respectability
 Significance of Research
• All progress is born of inquiry.
• Doubt leads to inquiry, inquiry leads to invention
• Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the
development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
• Business and Government have a focused attention on research and innovation
for solving operational problems.
• Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in the economic
system.
• Government budget depends on research carried out through analysis of the
needs and desires of people and on the availability of revenues to meet these
needs. The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues.
• Through research, alternative policies can be devised and their consequences
can be examined.
 Significance of Research

• Research has a special significance in solving various operational and planning

gproblems of business and industry.
• Operations research, market research and motivational research are crucial in taking
business decisions.
• Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and
in seeking answers to various social problems.
• Research may mean a career or a way to attain a high position in the social structure
for students
• Research may mean a source of livelihood for professionals
• Research may mean outlet for new ideas and insights for philosophers and thinkers
• Research may mean the development of new styles and creative work
• Research may mean the generalizations of new theories to analysts and intellectuals
 Types of Research
Research is classified in many different ways.

● Descriptive versus Analytical Research

● Applied versus Fundamental Research

● Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

● Conceptual versus Empirical Research

 Descriptive versus Analytical Research

● Descriptive research concentrates on finding facts to ascertain the

nature of something as it exists. Example: frequency of shopping,
preferences of people, etc.
● Analytical research is concerned with determining validity of hypothesis
based on analysis of facts collected. Researcher has to use facts or
information already available and analyze these to make a critical
evaluation
 Descriptive vs Analytical research

● Descriptive research classifies, describes, compares and measures data.

● Analytical research focuses on cause and effect.
 Applied vs Fundamental Research

● Applied research is carried out to find answers to practical

problems to be solved and as an aid in decision making in different
areas including product design, process design and policy making.
● Fundamental research is carried out as more to satisfy intellectual
curiosity, than with the intention of using the research findings for
any immediate practical application. Pure or Basic research is
gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake
 Applied vs Fundamental Research

Applied Research Fundamental Research

Aims at finding solution for Concerned with generalizations and
immediate problem facing society or formulation of a theory
industrial/business organization

Conclusions facing a concrete social Some natural phenomena or

or business problem mathematics, human behaviour

Identify social, economic or political Adds to already existing body of

trends that may affect a particular knowledge
institution; Marketing research
Applied vs Fundamental(Pure/Basic) Research
 Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

● Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon relating to or involving

quality or kind. Investigation of reasons for human behaviour (why people think or do
certain things), it is called Motivational Research which is qualitative research.
● Attitude or opinion research is designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject
● Experimental psychologist can guide such researchers.
● Quantitative research makes substantial use of measurements and quantitative
analysis techniques.
 Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

Focuses on testing hypotheses and Focuses on exploring ideas and
theories formulating a theory or hypothesis

Analysed through mathematics and Analysed by summarizing,

statistical analysis categorizing and interpreting

Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs Mainly expressed in words

and tables Word association tests, sentence
completion tests, story completion
tests etc
 Conceptual vs Empirical Research

● Conceptual research is involves investigation of thoughts and ideas and

developing new ideas or interpreting the old ones based on logical
reasoning.
● Empirical research is based on firm verifiable data collected by either
observation of facts under natural condition or obtained through
experimentation.
 Other types of Research

● One time Research/Longitudinal Research (One off or cross-sectional studies interview a

fresh sample of people each time they are carried out, whereas longitudinal
studies follow the same sample of people over time)
● Field setting research/Laboratory research/Simulation Research (qualitative method of data
collection that aims to observe, interact and understand objects while they are in a
natural environment/ experiments carried out in lab/observations technique that
reproduces actual events and processes under test conditions
● Clinical/Diagnostic Research (evaluate and test new interventions such as psychotherapy
or medications; better ways to identify a particular disorder or condition. )
● Exploratory Research (investigates research questions that have not previously been
studied in depth)
● Historical Research(process of collecting and interpreting data about past events or
ideas in order to find how they affected the present events and ideas)
● Operations Research (application of similar ideas to larger, more complex decisions that concern the
operations of systems, such as businesses and networks of machines)
 Research Approaches
There are two types of research approaches
● quantitative approach
● Qualitative approach

This approach can be further sub-classified into

● Simulation approaches
● Inferential,
● Experimental
 Research Approaches

● Quantitative approach
● Emphasizes objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical or numerical analysis of data
collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using
computational techniques.

● Qualitative approach
● Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinion sand
behavior.
● Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions.
● Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are
not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
● Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used.
Research Approaches
 Criteria of Good Research
● The purpose of research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used
● Research procedure should describe in detail so that another researcher can progress
with further advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been attained
● The procedural design of research should be carefully planned to yield objective results
● Research should report flaws in procedural deign and estimate their effect on their
findings
● Analysis should reveal its significance and analysis methods should be appropriate.
Validity and reliability of data should be checked carefully
● Conclusions should be confined to those justified by data of research and limited to
those for which data provides an adequate basis
● Greater confidence is warranted in the researchers
 Criteria of Good Research
● Good research is systematic
It is structured with specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in
accordance with the well defined set of rules. There cannot be guessing or intuition
in arriving at conclusions
● Good research is logical
Research is guided by rules of logical reasoning and the logical process of induction
and deduction are of great value in carrying out research. Induction is the process
of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process of
reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very
premise.
 Criteria of Good Research

● Good research is empirical

Research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real situation and
deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results
● Good research is replicable
Research results can be verified by replicating the study and thereby
building a sound basis for decisions
 Research methods

● Research methods are all those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research.
● Research methods can be in the following three groups.
1. Methods which are concerned with the collection of data (where data
already available are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution)
2. Statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationships
between the data and the unknowns
3. Methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results
obtained
 Research methods vs Research Techniques

● Research Methods refer to the behaviour and instruments

used in selecting and constructing research technique.

● Research Techniques refer to the behaviour and

instruments used in performing research operations such as
making observations, recording data, techniques of
processing data, etc.
 Research methodology

● Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research

problem.
● It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done
scientifically.
● In it we study the various steps that are generally adopted by a
researcher in studying his research problem along with the logic behind
them
● Evaluation of research methods is called as Research methodology
 Research methodology

● Research methodology concerning a research problem or study

involves:
1. Why research study has been undertaken?
2. How the research problem is defined?
3. How and Why has the hypotheses formulated?
4. What data has been collected?
5. Which specific method has been adopted?
6. Why has a specific method of data analysis been undertaken?
Research Method vs Research Methodology
 Research and Scientific Method

● Research is the inquiry into the nature of , the reasons for and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these
circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they
occur.
● The scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical
considerations, to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts, through
experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted
postulates and a combination of these in varying proportions.
 Research and Scientific Method

The scientific method is based on certain basic postulates

● It relies on empirical evidence
● It utilizes relevant concepts
● It is committed to only objective considerations
● It presupposes ethical neutrality i.e. it aims at making adequate and correct
statements about population objects
● It results into probabilistic predictions
● Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny and for use
in testing the conclusions through replication
● It aims at formulating most general axioms or what are called scientific theories
 Research and Scientific Method

Thus scientific method implies an objective logical and systematic

method free from personal bias, prejudice, ascertaining
demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being verified,
1. a method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning,
2. a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly
manner and
3. a method that implies internal consistency
 Research process
● It consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
● It consists of a number of closely related activities.
● These activities overlap continuously rather than follow a strictly
prescribed sequence
● The steps of research process are not mutually exclusive, nor separate
nor distinct
 Research process

Procedural Guideline for Research process

1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Developing the hypothesis
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
6. Collecting the data
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis testing
10. Generalizations and interpretation
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results i.e. formal write up of conclusions
reached
 1. Formulating the Research problem

● There are two types of research problems

○ Those which relate to states of nature and
○ Those which relate to relationships between variables
● Researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject matter
that he would like to inquire into
● Initially problem may be stated in a broad general way
● Ambiguities related to the problem should be solved
● Feasibility study has to be undertaken before a working formulation of the
problem can be set up
● General topic should be formulated to specific research problem
● Steps involve din formulating research problem are:
○ Understanding the problem thoroughly
○ Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view
 2.Extensive Literature Survey

● Analyse critically and concisely earlier research and literature related to a particular
research problem and utilize them for one’s own research purposes.
● Abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first
place to go.
● Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books, etc., must be
tapped depending on the nature of the problem.
● In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another.
● The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully
studied.
 3.Developing the hypothesis

● Researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses that provides the focal
point for research
● The working hypothesis is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
● They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the
quality of data which is required for the analysis .
● Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be
tested.
● The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and keep him
on the right track.
● It sharpens his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem.
● It also indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used.
 3.Developing the hypothesis

1. Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin, and the objectives in
seeking a solution.

2. Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities, and other clues;

3. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
4. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to securing greater insight into the practical

aspects of the problem.

 4.Preparing the Research Design
● Preparation of a research design involves stating of the conceptual structure within which research would be
conducted.
● The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
● The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of
effort, time, and money.
● Research purposes may be grouped into four categories:
(i)Exploration- A flexible research design that provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a
problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of exploration.
(ii) Description- when the purpose happens to be an accurate description of a situation or of an association between
variables, the suitable design will be one that minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collected and
analyzed.
(iii) Diagnosis - The researcher is trying to evaluate the cause of a specific problem or
phenomenon
(iv) Experimentation- Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without control,
after-only with control, or before-and-after with control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design,
randomized block design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the researcher
must select one for his own project.
 4.Preparing the Research Design

● The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research

problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any)
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining
information will be organized and the reasoning leading to the
selection
(iv) the time available for research
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the
purpose.
 5.Determining sample design

● All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’.
● A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be
presumed that in such an inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance is left and
the highest accuracy is obtained.
● Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get larger and larger as the number of
observations increases.
● Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey
or the use of sample checks.
● Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money, and energy.
● Census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances.
● For instance, blood testing is done only on a sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few
items from the universe for our study purposes.
● The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample.
 5.Determining sample design
● The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample
design.
● In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for
obtaining a sample from a given population.
● Example for sample design: selecting 12 out of 200 drug stores of city
● Samples can be either
● probability samples or
● non-probability samples
● With probability samples, each element has a known probability of being included in the sample.
Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified
sampling, and cluster/area sampling
● The non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Non-probability
samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgment sampling, and quota sampling techniques.
 Deliberate sampling

● also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.

● This sampling method involves the purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample that represents the universe.
● When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on ease of access, it
can be called convenience sampling. For example: If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say,
gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations and may conduct interviews at
these stations. This would be an example of a convenience sample of gasoline buyers. At times
such a procedure may give very biased results, particularly when the population is not
homogeneous.
● In judgment sampling, the researcher’s judgment is used for selecting items that he considers
representative of the population. For example, a judgment sample of college students might be
taken to secure reactions to a new method of teaching. Judgement sampling is used quite
frequently in qualitative research where the desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather
than to generalize to larger populations.
 Simple random sampling

● also known as chance sampling or probability sampling

● Each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and
each one of the possible samples, in the case of a finite universe, has the same
probability of being selected.
● For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items,
then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and
conduct a lottery.
● Using random number tables is another method of random sampling.
● To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. 300 five digit
random numbers are selected from the table. Each item has equal probability of being
selected.
 Systematic sampling

● In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th name
on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street, and so on.
● Sampling of this type is known as systematic sampling.
● An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by
using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.
● This procedure is useful when a sampling frame is available in the form of a list.
● In such a design the selection process starts by picking some random point in the
list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.
 Stratified sampling

● If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a homogeneous
group, then a stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative sample.
● In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-overlapping
subpopulations or strata, and sample items are selected from each stratum.
● If the items selected from each stratum are based on simple random sampling the entire
procedure, first stratification and then simple random sampling, is known as stratified random
sampling.
● Example : Divide a sample of adults into subgroups by age, like 18–29, 30–
39, 40–49, 50–59, and 60 and above.
 Quota sampling

● Interviewers are simply given a quota to be filled from different strata, the actual
selection of items for the sample being left to the interviewer’s judgment. This is
called quota sampling.
● Population is divided into mutually exclusive subgroups (called
strata) and then sample units are recruited until quota is reached.
● The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that
stratum in the population.
● Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling.
● Quota samples generally happen to be judgment samples rather than random
samples.
 Quota sampling

● For example, a cigarette company wants to find out what age group prefers
what brand of cigarettes in a particular city. They apply survey quota on
the age groups of 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51+. From this information, the
researcher gauges the smoking trend among the population of the city.
● Quota sampling can be divided into two groups: controlled and
uncontrolled.
● Controlled quota sampling involves introduction of certain restrictions in
order to limit researcher’s choice of samples.
● Uncontrolled quota sampling, on the other hand, resembles convenience
sampling method in a way that researcher is free to choose sample group
members according to his/her will.
 Quota sampling
● Example: To evaluate the impact of cross-cultural differences on employee motivation in Virgin
Media in the UK.
● You need to assess the effectiveness of employee motivational tools taking into account gender
differences among the workforce.
● Quota sampling can be applied in the following manner:
1. Dividing the population into specific groups. Virgin Media employees in the UK as the sampling
frame need to be divided into the following five groups according to their cultural background:
a. European
b. Asian (India)
c. Asian (China)
d. Black (African)
e. Other
2. Calculating a quota for each group. You supervisor confirms that in order to achieve research
objectives, 30 representatives from each group and the total sample size of 150 respondents would be
appropriate.
 Cluster sampling and Area sampling

● Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and then selecting the groups or the
clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
● Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has
issued its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster
sampling, this list of 15,000 cardholders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150
cardholders each. Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly.
● The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the
same level of accuracy because cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and
other sources of error is usually accentuated.
● The clustering approach can, however, make the sampling procedure relatively easier
and increase the efficiency of fieldwork, especially in the case of personal interviews.
 Cluster sampling and Area sampling

● Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when
the total geographical area of interest happens to be a big one.
● Under area sampling we first divide the total area into a number of smaller non-
overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then a number of these
smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included
in the sample.
● Area sampling is especially helpful when we do not have the list of the population
concerned.
● It also makes field interviewing more efficient since the interviewer can do many
interviews at each location.
 Multi-stage sampling

● This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling.

● This technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably
large geographical area like an entire country.
● Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns, and finally
certain families within towns.
● If the technique of random sampling is applied at all stages, the
sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.
 Sequential sampling

● This is somewhat of a complex sample design where the

ultimate size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is
determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis
of information yielded as the survey progresses.
● This design is usually adopted under an acceptance sampling
plan in the context of statistical quality control.
 6. Collecting the data

● In dealing with any real-life problem it is often found that the data at hand are
inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are
appropriate.
● There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ
considerably in the context of money costs, time, and other resources at the
disposal of the researcher.
● Primary data can be collected either through experiments or surveys. If the
researcher conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative
measurements, or the data, with the help of which he examines the truth
contained in his hypothesis.
 6. Collecting the data

In the case of a survey, data can be collected in any one or more of the following ways:
By observation:
● By way of the investigator’s own observation, without interviewing the respondents.
● The information obtained relates to what is currently happening and is not complicated
by either the past behavior or future intentions or attitudes of respondents.
● expensive method
● information provided by this method is also very limited
● not suitable for inquiries where large samples are concerned
 6. Collecting the data

Through personal interview

● The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set of pre-conceived
questions through personal interviews.
● This method of collecting data is usually carried out in a structured way where output
depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.
Through telephone interviews
● This method of collecting information involves contacting the respondents on the
telephone itself.
● This is not a very widely used method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in
developed regions, particularly, when the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited
time.
 6. Collecting the data

By mailing of questionnaires
● The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each other if this
method of survey is adopted.
● Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request to return after
completing the same.
● It is the most extensively used method in various economic and business surveys.
● Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is
conducted which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire.
● The questionnaire to be used must be prepared very carefully so that it may
prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.
 6. Collecting the data

Through schedules
● Enumerators are appointed and given training.
● They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions.
● These enumerators go to respondents with these schedules.
● Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis
of replies given by respondents.
● Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure
sincere work.
 6. Collecting the data
● The researcher should select one of these methods of
collecting the taking into consideration the nature of
investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial
resources, available time and desired degree of accuracy.
● Much depends on the ability and experience of the
researcher.
 7. Execution of Project

● Project execution should proceed on the correct lines, so that data collected would be adequate and
dependable. Project should be executed in a systematic manner and on time.

● If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured questionnaires, questions as well as the possible
answers may be coded. A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey
as much realistic as possible. Steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so
that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy.

● If the data are to be collected through interviews, arrangements should be made for proper selection and
training of the interviewers. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing
their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.

● Suitable methods to be adopted to tackle non respondents. One method of dealing with the non-response
problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a small sub-sample of them, and then with the
help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for secure response
 8. Analysis of data

● The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as the establishment
of categories, and the application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation,
and then drawing statistical inferences.
● The unwieldy data should be condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further
analysis.
● Thus, the researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories.
● A coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
● Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding, the
stage is ready for tabulation.
● Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form
of tables.
 8. Analysis of data

● Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of

various percentages, coefficients, etc., by applying various well define
statistical formulae.
● Relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new
hypotheses should be subjected to test of significance to determine with
what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions(s).
 9.Hypothesis-testing

● Hypothesis formulated earlier is to be tested after analysis of data

● The question “Do the facts support the hypotheses or do they happen to be
contrary? “ is to be answered while testing hypotheses.
● Various tests, such as the Chi-square test, t-test, and F-test, have been
developed by statisticians for this purpose.
● The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more such tests,
depending upon the nature and object of the research inquiry.
● Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or rejecting it.
● If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established
on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
research in times to come.
 10. Generalisations and interpretation

Generalization
● If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at a generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
● As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalizations.
Interpretation
● If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
● The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in
turn may lead to further research.
 11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

Researcher should prepare the report of what has been done by

him. Report writing should be done with great care.
Report Layout should contain the following:
(i) the preliminary pages
(ii) the main text
(iii) the end matter
 11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

(i) The preliminary pages

• Title
• Date
• Acknowledgements
• Foreword
• Table of contents
• List of tables
• List of graphs and charts in the report
 11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

(ii)The main text

(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research
and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The
scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After the introduction, there would appear a statement of
findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are
extensive, they should be summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in a logical
sequence and broken down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, the researcher should again put
down the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing
up
 11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

(iii) The end matter

• Appendices enlisted in respect of all technical data
• Bibliography or References (list of books, journals,
reports, articles, links referred)
 DR. CHITRA RAVI
DIRECTOR
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE STUDIES
CMR UNIVERSITY
BANGALORE