Computer

Networks
Chapter 1
Part 2
 Chapter 1

Roadmap:
1.1 what’s the Internet? what’s a protocol?
1.2 Network edge:
• End systems, access networks & links
1.3 Network core:
• Circuit switching, Packet switching, and network structure
1.4 Performance:
• Delay, loss, and throughput in Packet switched networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Summary
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet Switching

Each end-end data stream divided

into packets
• user A, B packets share network Bandwidth division into
resources “pieces”
• each packet uses full link Dedicated allocation
bandwidth Resource reservation

• resources used as needed

 1.3 The Network Core
Packet Switching

Resource contention:
• aggregate resource demand can
exceed amount available
• congestion: packets queue, wait for
link use
• most packet switches OR routers
use store and forward: packets store-and forward delay =
move one hop at a time L/R
(assuming zero propagation delay)
• Switch receives complete packet
before forwarding
• introduce a store-and forward delay
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet Switching

• In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into small data packets.
• These packets are sent out from the computer and they travel around the network
seeking out the most efficient route to travel as circuits become available.
• This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the shortest route.
• Each packet may go a different route from the others.
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet Switching
• Each packet is sent with a ‘header address’ which tells it where its final destination
is, so it knows where to go.

• The header address also describes the sequence for reassembly at the destination
computer so that the packets are put back into the correct order.

• One packet also contains details of how many packets should be arriving so that
the recipient computer knows if one packet has failed to turn up.

• If a packet fails to arrive, the recipient computer sends a message back to the
computer which originally sent the data, asking for the missing packet to be resent.
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet Switching

Advantages
• Security
• Bandwidth used to full potential
• Devices of different speeds can communicate
• Not affected by line failure (redirects signal)
• Availability – no waiting for a direct connection to become available
• During a crisis or disaster, when the public telephone network might
stop working, e-mails and texts can still be sent via packet switching
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet Switching

Disadvantages
• Under heavy use there can be a delay
• Data packets can get lost or become corrupted
• Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer
• Not so good for some types of data streams (e.g. real-
time video streams can lose frames due to the way
packets arrive out of sequence)
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet Switching (Statistical Multiplexing)

100 Mb/s C
A Ethernet statistical multiplexing

1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets
waiting for output
link

D E
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet Switching (Statistical Multiplexing)

• packets (A & B) does not follow any periodic ordering; the ordering is random or
statistical, bandwidth shared on demand  statistical multiplexing.

Suppose that there are Q links between A and E, each of rate R bps. The packet
must first be transmitted onto the first link emanating from host A; this takes L/R
seconds. It must then be transmitted on each of the Q-1 remaining links, that is, it
must be stored-and-forwarded Q-1 times.
Thus the total delay is QL/R.
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet Switching (store-and-forward)

L
R R R
 Pkt Switch (Router) receives complete packet before forwarding
 introduce a store-and forward delay (wait for all bits of a pkt to
arrive at the switch)
 Takes L/R seconds to transmit (push out) packet of L bits on to link at R
bps
 store and forward: entire packet must arrive at router before it can be
transmitted on next link
 delay = 3L/R (assuming zero propagation delay)
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet Switching (store-and-forward)

Example:
L = 7.5 Mbits
R = 1.5 Mbps
Transmission (Tx) delay = ?
Tx Delay = 3L / R
= 3 (7.5) / 1.5
= 15 sec
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet switching VS. circuit
switching
Packet switching
• Allows more users to use the network
• great for bursty data
• better sharing of bandwidth
• resource sharing
• simpler, no call setup
• more efficient,
• less costly to implement
• excessive congestion: packet delay and loss
• protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control
 1.3 The Network Core
Packet switching VS. circuit
switching

Packet switching allows more users to use network!

Example:
 1 Mb/s link
 each user:
• 100 kb/s when “active”
• active 10% of time

 circuit-switching:
N

…..
 10 users
 packet users
switching: 1 Mbps link
 with 35 users, probability > 10 active at same time is
less than .0004 Introduction 1-14
 Chapter 1

Roadmap:
1.1 what’s the Internet? what’s a protocol?
1.2 Network edge:
• End systems, access networks & links
1.3 Network core:
• Circuit switching, Packet switching, and network structure
1.4 Performance:
• Delay, loss, and throughput in Packet switched networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Summary
 1.4 Performance
How do loss and delay occur?

packets queue in router buffers

• packet arrival rate to link exceeds output link capacity
• packets queue, wait for turn packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
 1.4 Performance
Four sources of packet delay
• 2. queueing
1. nodal processing:
• check bit errors
•time waiting at output link for
transmission
• determine output link
• depends on congestion level of
transmission router
A
propagation = Qi /Rout
•

B
nodal Qi =preceding bits in queue
processing queueing Rout = output link bps
 1.4 Performance
Four sources of packet delay

3. Transmission delay: 4. Propagation delay:

• R=link bandwidth (bps) • d = length of physical link
• L=packet length (bits) • s = propagation speed in
medium (~2x108 m/sec)
• time to send bits into link = L/R
• propagation delay = d/s
Note: s and R are very different quantities!
transmission
A
propagation Bandwidth: amount of data
that can be transmitted

B Speed: time taken to reach the

nodal
processingqueueing data from source to destination
 1.4 Performance
Caravan analogy

100 100
ten-car toll km
toll km
caravan booth booth
• 10 cars, each “propagate” at 100 • Time to “push” entire caravan
km/hr through toll booth onto highway
• toll booth takes 12 sec to service car = 12*10 = 120 sec
(transmission time) • Time for last car to propagate
• car~bit; caravan ~ packet from 1st to 2nd toll both:
• Q: How long until caravan is lined up 100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr
before 2nd toll booth? • A: 62 minutes
Multiple links: the delay for the first car is 60 min. 12 sec. times the number of links.
 1.4 Performance
Nodal delay

d nodal d proc  d queue  d trans  d prop

• dproc = processing delay
• typically a few microsecs or less
• dqueue = queuing delay
• depends on congestion
• dtrans = transmission delay
• = L/R, significant for low-speed links
• dprop = propagation delay
• a few microsecs to hundreds of msecs
 1.4 Performance
Queueing delay (revisited)

R=link bandwidth (bps)

L=packet length (bits)
a=average packet arrival rate
traffic intensity = La/R

 La/R ~ 0: average queueing delay small

 La/R -> 1: delays become large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving than can be serviced, average
delay infinite!
 1.4 Performance
“Real” Internet delays and routes

• What do “real” Internet delay & routes look like?

• Traceroute program: provides delay measurement from source to router
along end-end Internet path towards destination. For all i:
 1.4 Performance
“Real” Internet delays and routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms Three delay
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms measurements from
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms gaia.cs.umass.edu to
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * *
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms
 1.4 Performance
Packet loss

• queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity

• packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
• lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source
end system, or not at all
buffer
packet being transmitted
A (waiting area)

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost "aka" = "also known as"
 Chapter 1

Roadmap:
1.1 what’s the Internet? what’s a protocol?
1.2 Network edge:
• End systems, access networks & links
1.3 Network core:
• Circuit switching, Packet switching, and network structure
1.4 Performance:
• Delay, loss, and throughput in Packet switched networks
1.5 Protocol layers, service models
1.6 Summary
 1.5 Protocol “Layers”

Networks are complex! Question:

• many “pieces”: Is there any hope of
• hosts organizing structure of
• routers network?
• links of various media
• applications
Or at least our discussion
• protocols
of networks?
• hardware, software
 1.5 Protocol “Layers”
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)
gates (load) gates (unload)
runway takeoff runway landing
airplane routing airplane routing
airplane routing

a series of steps
 1.5 Protocol “Layers”
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

• via its own internal-layer actions
• relying on services provided by layer below
 1.5 Protocol “Layers”
Why layering?

Dealing with complex systems:

• Explicit structure allows identification, relationship of complex
system’s pieces
• layered reference model for discussion
• modularization eases maintenance, updating of system
• change of implementation of layer’s service transparent to
rest of system
• layering considered harmful?
 1.5 Protocol “Layers”
Internet protocol stack

• application: supporting network applications

• FTP, SMTP, HTTP
application
• transport: process-process data transfer
• TCP, UDP(datagrams) transport
• network: routing of datagrams from source to destination
• IP, routing protocols network
• link: data transfer between neighboring network elements
• PPP, Ethernet link
• physical: transmits bits “on the wire” instead of packets
physical
 1.5 Protocol “Layers”
ISO/OSI reference model

• presentation: The presentation layer transforms data into

the form that the application accepts. This layer formats and application
encrypts data to be sent across a network, - encryption, presentation
compression, machine-specific conventions
session
• session: It establishes, manages and terminates the
transport
connections between the local and remote application -
synchronization, checkpointing, recovery of data exchange network
• Internet stack “missing” these layers! link
• these services, if needed, must be implemented in physical
application
 1.5 Protocol “Layers”
Source Encapsulation
message M applicatio
segment Ht M n
datagramHn Ht M transport
frame Hl Hn Ht M network
link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination H n Ht M network
M applicatio Hl H n Ht M link H n Ht M
Ht M n physical
H n Ht M transport
Hl H n Ht M network router
link
 Chapter 1
Summary
Internet

Access Networks

Packet and Circuit Switching

Delays, lost and throughput

Layering of internet