Computer Systems

By Mustafa Abu Obaida

Section 1: Abstraction and interaction in
computer systems
In this section, you'll examine computer systems to understand abstraction and
interaction. You will learn the different levels of abstraction in how computers work.
You will also learn the three main domains in a computer abstraction hierarchy,
including software, digital, and analogue domains.
What is a computer system?
A computer system includes a central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output
devices and storage devices. In a computer system, the inputs are processed to
deliver the desired output. A computer system varies from a high-end server to a
personal desktop, laptop, tablet computer, or smartphone.
Levels of abstraction in a computing system
Vulnerability in cyber-security refers to a flaw in a system that can leave it open to attack.
Computer systems are vulnerable to cyber attacks by cyber criminals. Cyber criminals are
unauthorized users who gain access to company networks. Therefore, it is important to
understand how a computer system is built to understanding it's vulnerabilities.

Levels of abstraction are common computer science, with each layer representing a different
model of the same processes. One way to think about each level of abstraction is that higher
levels (where you'll find application s and user interfaces) are designed with people and their
thought processes in mind. In comparison, lower levels represent the way computers work.
The levels of abstraction are useful because they allow people to work on systems without
needing a detailed understanding of those systems. You can, for example, create perfectly
functional software without knowing the first thing about how logic gates work.
Did you know?
Abstractions in real life can better be understood with numbers. Let us consider a
situation where the class teacher asks the students,’How many tests you all have
completed this term?’... Students answered ‘five’.

The students’ answer conveys the relevant information without any further
background details. The number ‘five’ can represent five different subjects or dates
or quizzes or time of the day, or classroom number. This is an abstraction in real life.

In Computer Science, a sorting algorithm using the data structure array will sort the
numbers in a particular order. In general, the sorting program will work for five
numbers or even 5000 numbers because the code functionality is tied to an
abstraction.
There are many levels of abstraction in how a computer system work. The
abstraction is organized into three domains:
- Software
- Digital
- Analogue
Software domain
Software programs are programs written and used for specific purpose. There is
different software underneath these programs that helps the software to work.
Software is an abstraction, as software is a way of thinking about the computer
without thinking about how it works. The four layers of abstraction in the software
domain are:
● applications that you write and use
● programming languages that you use to write software programs
● libraries of useful functions with a specific purpose
● operating systems that interfaces with the hardware
Digital domain
The levels of abstraction in the digital domain are different ways of thinking about the physical
object in a computer system. The circuitry inside a computer is complicated. To build the circuitry,
engineers think about it at several different levels of abstraction as follows:
● architecture - the instructions are sent by software, and the hardware can understand
● components - memory, processes, video cards, etc., are components used to implement
the architecture
● integrated circuit (IC chips) - components that are built out of integrated circuits, which are
sets of electronic circuits on one small flat piece of semiconductor material, usually
● logic gates - integrated circuits are built with logic gates which are the fundamental building
blocks that implement Boolean functions using 0’s and 1’s
Analogue domain
At the lowest abstraction level of the digital domain, logic gates operate 0’s and
1’s. These logic gates are built of transistors, a type of circuit component. The
state of transistors is not off (0) or on (1) but might have values in-between 0 and
1 (for example, ‘only 23% on’). So, digital circuits are carefully built by electrical
engineer so that in-between values do not happen.
Troubleshooting
guidelines
Section 2
Introduction to troubleshooting
Troubleshooting is a way of discovering what is causing a problem and fixing it in a
system. Troubleshooting requires organized and logical approach to problems with
computers and other components. Sometimes issues arise during preventive
maintenance.

Troubleshooting is a skill that you refine over time. Each time you solve a problem,
you increase your troubleshooting skills by gaining more experience. You learn
how and when to combine steps, or skip steps, to reach a solution quickly. The
troubleshooting process is a guideline that is modified to fit your needs. Before you
begin troubleshooting problems, always follow the necessary precautions to
protect data on a computer.
The troubleshooting process steps
1. Identify the problem
2. Establish a theory of probable cause
3. Test the theory to determine the cause
4. Create a plan of action to resolve the problem and implement the solution
5. Verify full system functionally and implement preventive measures
6. Document finding actions and outcomes
Identify the problem
The first step in the troubleshooting process is to identify the problem. During this
step, gather as much information as possible from the customer and the computer.
An example for identifying a problem and possible solution is shown in the
following table.
Create a theory of probable cause
In the second step, create a list of the most common reasons for the error. Even if
the user thinks there is a major problem, start troubleshooting with common issues
before moving to a more complex diagnosis. The common issues troubleshooting
steps can be as follows.
● Check if the device is powered off.
● Find if the power switch for an outlet is turned off.
● Make sure that there are no loose external cable connections.
● Check whether the system start-up (system software) is working.
Test the theory to determine the cause
Now, list the best possible solutions that can lead to finding a solution. You find an exact cause
by testing from the best solution list, one at a time, starting with the quickest and easiest.

Some common steps to determine the cause of the problem are as follows.
● Check if the device is powered on.
● Check if the power switch for an outlet is turned on
● Check if the external cable connections are secure
● Check if the system start-up (system software) is working

If you cannot determine the exact cause of a problem after testing the list of best solutions,
then list another set of possible solutions. If needed, escalate the problem to a technician with
more experience.
Create a plan of action to resolve the problem and
implement the solution
After identifying the exact cause of the problem, set a plan of action to resolve the problem. After that implement the
solution. Sometimes the problem gets solved quickly. After this, verify the full system functionality and implement
preventive measures. If the problem was not solved quickly, research the problem, and repeat the steps to implement the
solution.

After creating a plan of action, you should research possible solutions. Few ways of conducting research are listed below.
● Internet search
● Online forums
● Computer manuals
● Device manuals
● Help desk repair logs
● Manufacturer manuals
● Technical websites
● Newsgroups
Verify full functionality and implement preventive measures

After the repairs to the computer are completed, the troubleshooting process is continued by verifying
full system functionality and implementing the preventive measures as listed below.
● Reboot the computer
● Check if multiple applications work properly
● Check if the network and internet connections are working
● Print a document from one application
● Make sure that all attached devices work properly
● Make sure that no error messages are received

Verification of system functionality confirms that the problem is solved. Also, it confirms that no new
problems were created during the troubleshooting process. Lastly, the user should also check the
system's functionality.
Document findings, actions, and outcomes
After the repairs to the computer have been completed, finish the troubleshooting
process with the customer. Explain the problem and the solution to the customer
verbally and in writing. Then verify the solution with the customer. Demonstrate
how the solution has corrected the computer problem. When the customer verifies
and confirms that the problem has been resolved, the documentation for the repair
is created for the points listed below.
● Description of the problem
● Steps to resolve the problem
● Components used in the repair
Common security problems
Computer system users suffer many security problems without even realizing it. There are many potential security problems.
Browsers is an important component and application in computer systems. Users must ensure that one's browser is working
well. Let us get to know few security problems when a user uses a browser and the tools used to resolve the problem.

1. Popups: When users browse websites for information, advertisement popup windows appear almost immediately on
the webpage. These popups serve as entry points for malware. When a user unintentionally clicks on the popups,
malware gets injected into the system, affecting the system's functionality in many ways.
2. Browser redirection: This is another common security issue. When a user clicks a website link to visit a webpage,
the user is redirected to another page, where malware (or) virus attacks occur.
3. Security alerts: These types of breaches are also quite common. When users visit certain websites, they usually
receive some alert messages. Due to security concerns, these alert messages will advise users not to use the site.
However, the user must determine the exact reason why the site cannot be used and attempt to locate the exact
information stored on the site.
4. Slow performance: When browsing websites, some malware (or) virus will slow down the system and the network
5. Internet connectivity issues: The malware attack restrict users’ network access to the system. As a result, they are
unable to use (or download) online applications from the internet.
Tools used to tackle the security issues
The tools used widely to prevent the users from the attacks mentioned above are as follows.

1. Anti-virus software - This protects the system and other networking devices from virus attacks.
2. Anti-malware software: Anti-malware software is sometimes integrated into an anti-virus program
so that they both work in the same way. Anti-malware software is quite specific in detecting some
unwanted applications and programs.
3. Anti-spyware - Anti-spyware software should also be considered. This is a program that searches
for any spy programs that may be attempting to gain access to one's computer system. It is
sometimes integrated into one’s anti-virus program, so purchasing it may not be necessary.
4. Recovery console: This is a utility program that comes with the Windows XP operating system. In
Windows 7 and Vista, it is referred to as the command prompt. This utility allows you to access your
computer's system files even before it boots up. This software allows you to add, delete, or edit files
on your hard drive. If the file location is known, one can use these options to remove malicious
files.
Network troubleshooting process
Now that you have got an idea about the process of troubleshooting a problem,
the following steps will give an understanding of how to troubleshoot a network
problem.