E AA

C ST
C A U

College of Architecture and Civil Engineering

Hydraulic structure-II
2011 E.C
 CHAPTER THREE
3. Diversion Head Work
• Any hydraulic structure which supplies water to the off taking
canal is regarded as Diversion
• Diversion head-work provides an obstruction across a river,
so that the water level is raised and water is diverted to the
channel at required level.
• Diversion head-work may serve as silt regulator into the
channel.
 Depending on the purpose, head-works may be:
1.Storage head-work or
2.Diversion head-work

.
Weir
Barrage
 Cont’d…..
• The main purpose of diversion head-work is to divert
the required quantity of water into the off-taking canals
for irrigation purpose
A diversion head-works may also serve the following
purposes:
i) To raise the water level in the river for increasing its
command
ii) To regulate the intake of water into the canal
iii) To control silt entry into the canal
iv) To store water for meeting emergency requirements
v) To prevent fluctuations in the level of supply of the
river.
 Cont’d…..
•Types of Diversion head works
Temporary:
Spurs Bunds
Permanent
• Component parts of Diversion Headwork
•Weir or Barrage . Approach Canal
• Divide Wall .Silt prevention device
• Fish Ladder .Canal head regulator
• River training works
 Cont’d…..
•Diversion Head-Works consists of:
1. A weir or barrage; 2. Under sluices; 3. Divide
wall; 4. Fish ladder; 5. Canal head regulator; 6.
Silt controlling devices; 7. Guide bunds; 8.
Approach channel.
 Therefore, a location with firm, well defined
banks should be selected for the construction of
the weir. Where possible, the site should have
good bed conditions, such as rock outcrops.
 Cont’d…..
River u/s GUIDE BUND

Divide wall

Fish ladder

Head Regulator

Weir

CANAL Under sluices

Marginal Bunds
d/s GUIDE BUND
Cont’d…..
 Head Work for Diversion River ( river off take)
• A simple off take structure to control the water
diversion is sufficient
• The off take should preferably be built in a
straight reach of the river
The functions of the off take structures are:
 To pass the design discharge into the canal or
pipeline
 To prevent excessive water from entering during
flood
• When the gate is fully opened, the intake behaves
like a submerged weir and its discharge is given
by equation.
 River off take using a weir
• Structures constructed across rivers and streams
with an objective of raising the water level are
called cross regulators.
• A weir should be located in a stable part of the
river where the river is unlikely to change its
course.
Diversion head-works may be a weir or a barrage.

•Weirs are solid walls constructed across a river for

the purpose of raising the water level
• Barrage is a structure constructed either to store
water or raise the level of water.
In case of barrages, no wall is constructed across
the river, but there is an arrangement of gates
which can be used to store water to the required
level.
Types of weirs
 The flow over any type of weir is given by

Where: Q = Discharge (m3/sec) C1 = Coefficient related to condition of

submergence and crest shape , C2 = Coefficient related to crest shape

B = Weir length, i.e. the weir dimension across the river or stream (m) H = Head of water
over the weir crest (m)
 Design of weir

a) Design of Weir Walls

• Weir walls are design as a retaining wall or masonry dam
of solid gravity type.
• The resultant of forces P and W should pass through the
middle third of the base of the weir, for the weir to be
safe.
a
If b = bottom width of the body wall (to be designed);
d
a = top width ( to be fixed)

H = height of weir above the floor or the height of the body wall, and
H
d = depth of water above the weir crest or height of weir crest wall,

S = specific gravity of the body wall, then

b
 Cont’d…..
•Bligh has recommended the following:

From the above recommendations, stability are checked

under the following conditions:
I) The water in upstream is at crest level or the crest of
shutter and there is no flow over the weir
II)The weir is submerged and water is passing over it.
III)Water is passing over weir crest and the weir is discharging with a
clear over fall
 Design of Impervious Apron

Shutter

Body of weir

u/s apron
d/s apron

u/s boulder pitching

u/s curtains d/s boulder pitching
Well

a) The upstream Apron

The length of the upstream impervious apron according to Bligh is:

C C = Creep coefficient depends on
LU / s 2.208 * geology of weir site
H
.
 No. Type of soil Coefficient of creep, C
1 Boulder or shingle, gravel and sand mixed 7
2 Coarse grained sand 12
3 Fine micaceous sand 15
4 Light sand and mud 18

b).Downstream Apron

The length of this apron is:

H
LD / s 2.208 * C
Thickness of apron: 13
Seepage Head , H=H1-H2
Hy. Grad , i =H/Lcreep total)
Hr =H-h
Where tD/s = is in metres; H = total head causing seepage.
h = head lost by the creeping of water u to the point where
thickness is to be calculated. (h =i*Lcreep at a point)
SG = specific gravity of material of the apron.
 Cont’d…..
c). Upstream Curtain Wall: This is usually 2.0 to
2.5 m in depth.
d) Downstream Curtain Wall: usually 2.5 to 3.0 m
depth
3.3 Weir types and components
•A solid obstruction put across river to
raise its water level and divert water into
canal (low head structure)
 Components of Weir
1.Vertical drop wall or crest wall
2.Upstream, downstream cut off wall at the ends of
impervious floor
3.Launching apron for prevention of scour
4.Graduated inverted filter on downstream surface
floor end to relieve the uplift pressure.
The two main types of weirs are:
1.Gravity weir
2.Non Gravity weir
 Cont’d…..
•Location of Weirs
A weir should be located in a stable part of the
river where the river w/c is unlikely to change its
course.
The weir has to be built high enough to fulfill
command requirements. Where possible, the site
should have good bed conditions, such as rock
outcrops.
Alternatively, the weir should be kept as low as
possible.
 3.4 Cause of Failures of Weirs

1) Piping (or Undermining)

2) Uplift Pressure Rupturing the Floor of the Weir
3) Rupture of floor due to suction caused by standing
waves
4. Scour on the upstream and downstream of the weir
Rapture of floor could be prevented by:
i) providing adequate length of impervious floor
ii) providing sufficiently thick impervious apron
 BLIGH’S CREEP THEORY
•Water from upstream percolates and creeps (or
travel) slowly through weir base and the subsoil
below it.
• The head lost by the creeping water is
proportional to the distance it travels (creep length)
along the base of the weir profile.
• According to Bligh’s theory, the total creep length
for first drawing: L = B and for second drawing:
L = B + 2(d1 + d2 + d3)
 Cont’d…..
•If H is the total loss of head, then the loss of head
per unit length of the creep shall be
•Hydraulic gradient:

H H
H

d1 d2
B=L
B=L d1 d2 dd3 3

Method of increasing creep length

 Cont’d…..
•Bligh called the loss of head per unit length of
creep as Percolation coefficient.
•The reciprocal, (L/H) of the percolation coefficient
is known as the coefficient of creep C.
•Design Criteria
•Coefficient of creep C for various soils, C
No. Type of soil Coefficient of creep
1 Boulder or shingle, gravel and sand mixed 5–9
2 Coarse grained sand 12
3 Fine micaceous sand 15
4 Light sand and mud 18
 Cont’d…..
•For design, Bligh proposes the following two important
criterias for a weir with respect to creeping of water:
1. Safety against Piping
• For safety against Piping, the creep length L should
be sufficient to provide a safe hydraulic gradient,
depending on the type of soil.
Safe creep length, L = CH
• Where L =safe creep length; H = H1 – H2 Total loss of head for
the length of creep;
• H1 = upstream head; H2 = downstream head; C = creep
coefficient
 Cont’d…..
2. Safety against Uplift
The uplift pressure = γwH ; where H = the uplift pressure
head at any point of the apron.
• The downward resisting force per unit length of apron F R =
t. γw . S
•where t = thickness of the apron floor; S = specific gravity
of floor material.
•Equating the two forces, we determine the limiting floor
thickness
γw H = t. γw .S
H = t . S or H – t = t . S – t = t (S – 1)
 Cont’d…..
The limiting thickness

 where h is the ordinate of the hydraulic

gradient line measured above the top of the
floor.
Now applying a safety factor of 4/3
 Divide Wall
• This is a long solid wall of stone masonry built at
right angles to the axis of the body of the weir.
• Its function is to divide the river channel into two
portions and to create a still pond near the canal
head regulator end.
Concrete slab

1.5

Stone Masonry

Stone pitching

Concrete foundation
Divide Wall
 Cont’d…..
• Under Sluices (Scour Sluices): These are
openings provided in the body wall of the weir.
Their main function is to prevent the obstructions
to the flow of water through the main sluice.
In designing the scour sluices, the following are to
be noted:
• the design flow should be at least twice the discharge in
the off-take channel ( Qflood = 2*Qofftake)
• The discharge for undersluice , Qun.s = 20% Qflood
• the crest of the under sluice should be one meter lower
than the crest of the head regulator.
• The downstream portion of the under sluice must be
 3.5 Components of barrage
• The only difference between a weir and a barrage
is of gates, which are the flow in barrage is
regulated by gates and that in weirs, by its crest
height.
• Components of barrage
• Main barrage portion: Main body of the
barrage, Upstream concrete floor, c. A crest at
the required height , Upstream glacis of suitable
slope , Downstream floor , and etc…..
 3.6 Design of weirs and Barrages: Theory
of Seepage
• When the foundation of a hydraulic structure is
pervious, seepage will take place as long as
differential head exists across the structure.
• BLIGH’S CREEP THEORY
• Length of creep: is the total distance travelled by
seeping (creeping) water.
• If H = total head across structure,
• And L =total length of travel of seepage water
(creep length, then head lost per creep length= H/L
 Cont’d…..
• Referring to the diagram below, assume that there
are three cut-offs down beneath the foundation of
a weir with depths y1, y2, and y3 at A B and C
Weir or barrage

Hydraulic gradient
H

A h Q
B C

y1 L1 y2 L2
y3

Then the total seepage length (creep length)

Lc = L1 + L2 + 2(y1 + y2 + y3)
 Cont’d…..
• If H is the total head difference downstream and
upstream.
• Hydraulic gradient = H / Lc = head lost per unit
length travelled by seepage water.
• Head loss across cut-off A = (H/Lc) * 2y1
B = (H/Lc) * 2y2
C = (H/Lc) * 2y3
• Lc = C.H where H is the head across structure;
and C = a constant depending on soil type (see
page 63)
 Cont’d…..
• Safety against Uplift
• The ordinate at any point on the bottom of the floor
to the hydraulic gradient represent the uplift at that
point.
• This uplift must be balanced by the weight of the
floor if uplift is to be prevented.
• Let t be the required floor thickness to balance
uplift force , then
• Weight of floor = γ . SG. t
• Uplift force = γ.h
 Cont’d…..
• In the limiting condition,
γ. SG. t = γ.h
or t = h/SG.

H1
H2

H2

H1
Uplift pressure on foundation
 Cont’d…..
• If h’ is the ordinate to the hydraulic gradient line
considered from the top of the floor, then:
h = h’ + t
And , t = h/SG = (h’ + t)/SG
Or t = h’/(SG-1)
• This is the limiting thickness of the floor to
withstand uplift.
 Cont…

• Considering a horizontal floor of length L subjected to

seepage head H, the residual head, h at any point p is
given by:

 H
h H  i *  
 L 

The vertical intercept of the HGL is measured above the

top surface of the floor. If h’ is vertical intercept of HGL
above the bottom of floor,
h’= h + t
Uplift pressure
 Uplift pressure…
• The upward uplift force for unit area of the floor is

U u * A h'*1  * h  t 

• Downward force due to the weight of the floor is

W G * t * 1
• For equilibrium, the upward force should be counter-
balanced by the downward weight: W=U

h' Gt  h  t  Gt  t G  1 h


t 
h 

, FS=4/3 t 
4 
*
h 
 G  1 3  G  1

 Limitations of Bligh’s Theory
1) Bligh made no distinction between horizontal and
vertical creep
2) Bligh did not explain exit gradient
3) Bligh did not make any distinction between outer
and inner faces of sheet piles
4) Bligh did not explain any effect of sheet piles length
and their distances on exit gradient.
5) Head loss is not directly proportional to creep
length; Also uplift pressure distribution is not linear.
6) Bligh did not specify the necessity of providing
downstream end sheet pile.
 Lane’s Weighted Creep Theory
• This theory gives different weights for horizontal and
vertical creeps.

• According to this theory, vertical creep is 3 fold more

effective than horizontal creep.

• Thus, if a weightage of unity is given to vertical creep, the

weightage of the horizontal creep will be 1/3.

• It is an improvement over Bligh’s theory due to the

weightage of vertical creep given.
 Lane’s Theory
N
Leq  V
3

Where: Leq is the equivalent creep length

N is the sum of horizontal contacts and all sloping
contacts less than 450
V is the sum of vertical contacts and all sloping
contacts greater than 450

Criteria for the design are:

1. To be safe against piping, the exit gradient should
be less than the safe exit gradient.
Lane’s theory
H 1
  Leq  C1 * H
Leq C1

Where: H is the total seepage head

C1 is Lane’s creep coefficient

Recommended Lane’s creep coefficient

Material Lane’s C1
Very fine sand or silt 8.5
Fine sand 7.0
Coarse sand 5.0
Gravel and sand mixture 3.0
Boulder, gravel and sand 2.5
Soft clay 3.0
 Lane’s theory

2. The thickness of the floor at any point should be sufficient

to withstand the uplift pressure.

t 
4 
*
h 
 h is the residual pressure above the floor.
3  G  1 

• The residual pressure at any point should consider the

weightage given to vertical and horizontal creep. The
residual head at any point at distance of l from the upstream
end and with cutoff d1 at the u/s end is:

H l 
hres  H  *   2d1 
Leq  3 
 Example:
Assume there is a weir founded on pervious foundation with floor thickness
of 0.5 m all along cross section.
– Seepage head= 6 m
– Upstream cutoff depth = 6m
– Downstream cutoff depth = 8 m
– Middle cutoff depth= 3 m
– Upstream impervious floor up to middle of wall = 10m
– Downstream impervious floor from middle of wall =20 m
– Distance from the middle to heel of the weir wall=5m

a. Determine the hydraulic gradient of seepage using the Bligh’s

and Lane’s theory and say on the safety against piping.
b. Calculate the uplift pressure at the heel of the wall using both
the theories.
 Solution:
a.Bligh’s creep length
= 2*6 + 2*3 + 2*8 +10 + 20 + 2*0.5 = 65 m
• Lane’s equivalent creep length= 45 m
Bligh’s gradient =6/65=1/10.8 … Safe for gravel and sand
Lane’s gradient = 6/45=1/7.5 …Safe for Fine sand

b. Bligh’s length of creep up to the heel of the wall, Lx=33.0 m

Lane’s equivalent length of creep to the heel of the wall,
Lx=23.5m
Bligh 665  33
h 2.95
65
Lane 645  23.5 Bligh more conservative!
h 2.88
45
 3.6.1 Khosla’s Theory
• After studying a lot of dam failure constructed
based on Bligh’s theory, Khosla came out with the
following;
• Seeping water below a hydraulic structure does not
follow the bottom profile of the impervious floor
as stated by Bligh but each particle traces its path
along a series of streamlines.
• For steady flow, seepage in a homogeneous soil
obeys the Laplacian equation
d 2Q d 2Q
2
 2
0
dx dz
 Cont’d…..
•where , Q = K . h - flow potential
h = residual head at any point within the soil
and K coefficient of permeability as defined by
Darcy.The above equation represents two sets of curves
STREAMLINES and EQUIPOTENTIAL (VELOCITY POTENTIAL)
LINES which intercept each other orthogonally.
Streamlines
h
A B C D

Equipotential
lines

Flow network
 Method of Independent Variable of Khosla
• In this method, the actual profile of a weir which is complex, is
divided into a number simple profiles, each of which can be
solved mathematically without much difficulty.
• The most useful profile considered are:
1) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness
provided with a sheet pile at the upstream end or a
sheet pile at the downstream end.
2) A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed,
but without any vertical cut-off.
3) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with
a sheet pile at some intermediate point
 Cont’d…..
•The percentage pressures at the key points of a
simple forms will become valid for any complex
profile, provided the following corrections are
effected:
i) correction for mutual interference of piles
ii) correction for the thickness of floor
iii) correction for slope of the floor
 Cont’d…..

H H
E C
d
1
b1
D d
D b
b

Depressed floor
Sheet pile at intermediate position
 Correction for Mutual Interference of Piles
•The correction is applied as a percentage of the head
D d D
C 19 x 
b1  b 

• This correction is positive when the point is

considered to be at the rear of the interfering pile
and negative for points considered in the forward
or flow direction with the interfering pile.
 Cont’d…..
•The interference effect will not be present on the
intermediate pile if:
i) the outer pile is equal to or longer than the intermediate
pile and
ii) if the distance between the intermediate pile and outer
interfering pile is less than twice the length of the outer
pile.

1 2 3

E1 C1 bs C3
D3
D
d
b1
D1
D2
b D3
 Correction for Floor Thickness

•The pressures at the actual points E 1 and C1 are

interpolated by assuming a straight line variation in
pressures from the points E1* to D1 and from D1 to
C1* E1* C1*

E1 C1

Depressed floor

D1
 Correction for Slope of Floor.

•A correction for a sloping impervious floor is

positive for the down slope in the flow direction and
negative for the up slope in the direction of flow.
No. Slope =Ver:Horiz Correction as % of pressure

1 1:1 11.2
2 1:2 6.5
3 1:3 4.5
4 1:4 3.3
5 1:5 2.8
6 1:6 2.5
7 1:7 2.3
8 1:8 2.0
 Cont’d…..
•The correction factor must be multiplied by the
horizontal length of the slope and divided by the
distance between the two poles between which the
sloping floor exists.

C.F. x bs/b1
Where C.F. =correction factor
bs = horizontal length of sloping floor
b1 = horizontal distance between the pile lines
.
H H

C E E C

b1
b
d b d

Sheet pile at d/s end

D Sheet pile at u/s end
D

3.6.2 Exit and Critical Gradient

The exit gradient is such that the force F 1is just
equal to the submerged weight of the soil
particle, then that gradient is called critical
gradient. Safe exit gradients = 0.2 to 0.25 of the
critical exit gradient.
 Exit Gradient

•For the standard form consisting of a floor of a

length b, and a vertical cut-off of depth d, the exit
gradient at its downstream end is given by:
•Exit gradient, GE  H 1
*
d  

1
By referring to plate (17.3 ), for any value of α = b/d, the corresponding value of can be
 
read off.
 Use of Khosla’s Pressure Curves.

•First consider plate 17.1. Values of 1/α = d/b are

plotted as abscissa and percentage pressure φ = P/H
x 100 are plotted as ordinates. There are three curves,
one for QD and one for QE for sheet piles fixed at the
ends of the floor and the last one for φ D for
depressed floor
•To find the percentage pressure at the points C 1 and
D1 of the upstream pile, calculate
•α = b/d and then 1/α = d/b
 Cont’d…..
•For this value of 1/α determine the value of φ D
from the Khoslas curve.
• Then , ΦD1 = 100 – φD
•Similarly, determine the value of φE for the value of 1/α.
Subtract this φE from 100 to get φC1
• Then, φC1 = 100 – φE
•Koslas curves.docx
 How to Use Khoslas Chart
•Example: Let b = total length of floor = 60.0 m and d
= depth of u/s pile = 6.0
• Then 1/α = d/b = 6/60 = 0.1
•For this value of 1/α, we read the values of
φD = 20% and φE = 28%.
•Then , φD1 = 100 – 20 = 80
φC1= 100 – 28 = 72
•These percentages pressures must be corrected for
mutual interference.
 Canal Head Regulator
• is a structure constructed at the head of an off-
take channel of a weir.
• consist of a number of spans created by a
number of piers and covered by a number of
gates.
The functions of canal head regulator are:
 to regulate the quantity of water passing into the
canal
 to control the amount of silt entering the channel
 for shutting out flood flows.
 Cont’d…..

Alignment of Canal Head Regulator

 Cont’d…..

Drowned weir discharge formula Q2 C d 2 B h1 2 g h  hv 

Free weir equation formula 2  3 3

Q1  Cd 1 2 g B  h  hv 2  hv 2 
Total discharge Q = Q1 + Q2 3  
 Cont’d…..
• The values of Cd1 and Cd2 may be taken as 0.577 and
0.80, respectively
• Where, h=difference of the upstream and
downstream water level
• hv = head due to velocity of approach
• B = clear width of waterway
• h1 = depth of downstream water level above the
crest.
• When all other variables are fixed and known, value
of clear waterway width (B) can be calculated.
 Cont’d…..
• Example : The head regulator of a canal has 3
openings each 3 m wide. The water is flowing
between the upper and lower gates. The vertical
opening on the gate is 1m. The head on the
regulator is 0.45 m (Afflux). If the upstream water
level rises by 0.20 m, find how much the upper
gates must be lowered to maintain the canal
discharge unaltered.
• See page, 58
 SEDIMENT CONTROL IN CANALS

• Sediment entering into an off taking canal, if excessive,

causes silting, and thus, reduces Canal capacity.
Two types
• Sediment excluder (silt excluder)
• Sediment ejector (Silt extractor)
1. Sediment excluder (silt excluder)
• The excluder is constructed in the river bed
in front of (u/s) of the canal head regulator
to prevent, as far as possible, excess
sediment entering into the off taking canal.
 Con’t….
• A silt excluder consists of a number of rectangular
tunnels running parallel to the axis.
 Cont…
• The capacity of the tunnel(s) is usually kept at about
20% of the canal discharge, and they are designed to
maintain a minimum velocity of 2–3m/s (to avoid
deposition in tunnels).

2) Silt Ejector or extractor

The silt ejector is a device constructed on the canal

downstream of the head regulator but upstream of the
settling basin (if any), by which the silt, after it has
entered the canal, is extracted.
.