Lecture 1

Introduction

Computer Networks
The slides are made by J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross,
adapted by Phuong Vo and Tan Le

Instructor: Le Duy Tan, PhD

Introduction 1-1
Contents
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-2
Contents
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-3
“Fun” internet appliances

Web-enabled toaster +
weather forecaster

IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/

Tweet-a-watt:
monitor energy use

Slingbox: watch,
control cable TV remotely
Internet
refrigerator Internet phones
Introduction 1-4
WHAT IS THE INTERNET?

Introduction 1-5
What’s the Internet: “nuts and
bolts” view
PC  millions of connected mobile network
server computing devices:
wireless  hosts = end global ISP
laptop
smartphone
systems
 running network
home
apps
 communication network
regional ISP
wireless
links
links  fiber, copper,
wired
links radio, satellite
 transmission
rate:switches:
 Packet bandwidth
router forward packets
(chunks of data) institutional
 routers and network
switches
Introduction 1-6
What’s the Internet?
mobile network
 Internet: “network of
networks”
 Interconnected ISPs global ISP

 protocols control sending,

receiving of msgs home
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, network
regional ISP
802.11
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force

institutional
network

Introductio 1-7
n
ANYTHING ELSE?

Introduction 1-8
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather
 “I have a question” than humans
 introductions  all communication
activity in Internet
… specific msgs sent governed by
protocols
… specific actions
taken when msgs
received, or other protocols define
events format, order of
msgs sent and
received among
network entities,
and actions taken on
Introduction 1-9
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network
protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Introduction 1-10
Contents
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-11
A closer look at network
structure:
 network edge: mobile network
 hosts (end-system):
clients and servers global ISP
 servers often in data
centers home
network
 access networks, regional ISP
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication
 links
network core:
 interconnected
routers institutional
 network of network

networks
Introduction 1-12
Access networks and physical
media
Q: How to connect
end systems to
edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access
networks

Introduction 1-13
 Access net: home
network

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)

Introduction 1-14
Enterprise access networks
(Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

 typically used in companies, universities, etc

 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission
rates
 today, end systems typically connect into
Ethernet switch
Introduction 1-15
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access network connects end
system to router
 via base station aka “access point”
wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access
 within building (100 ft)  provided by telco (cellular)
 802.11b/g /n(WiFi): 11M, operator, 10’s km
54,M 72M~150M  between 1 and 10 Mbps
transmission rate  3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet

to Internet

Introduction 1-16
Physical media
 bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver
pairs twisted pair (TP)
 physical link: what lies  two insulated copper
between transmitter & wires
receiver  Category 5: 100
 guided media: Mbps, 1 Gpbs
Ethernet
 signals propagate in  Category 6: 10Gbps
solid media: copper,
fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate
freely, e.g., radio

Introduction 1-17
Physical media: coax, fiber
coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 broadband:  high-speed point-to-point
 multiple channels on transmission (e.g., 10’s-
cable 100’s Gpbs transmission
 HFC rate)
 low error rate:
 repeaters spaced far
apart
 immune to
electromagnetic noise

Introduction 1-18
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in radio link types:
electromagnetic  terrestrial microwave
spectrum  e.g. up to 45 Mbps
 no physical “wire” channels
 bidirectional  LAN (e.g., WiFi)
 11Mbps, 54 Mbps, 72~150
 propagation Mbps
environment effects:
 reflection
 wide-area (e.g., cellular)
 3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
 obstruction by  satellite
objects  Kbps to 45Mbps channel
 interference (or multiple smaller
channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
altitude
Introduction 1-19
Contents
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-20
The network core
 mesh of
interconnected
routers
 packet-switching:
hosts break
application-layer
messages into
packets
 forward packets from
one router to the
next, across links on
path from source to
destination
 each packet
Introduction 1-21
Packet-switching: store-and-
forward
L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to one-hop numerical

transmit (push out) L- example:
bit packet into link at R
bps  L = 7.5 Mbits
 store and forward:  R = 1.5 Mbps
entire packet must  one-hop
arrive at router before transmission delay
 end-end
it can be delay = 2L/R
transmitted = 5 sec
(assuming
on next linkzero more on delay shortly …
propagation delay) Introduction 1-22
Packet Switching: queueing delay,
loss
R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds
transmission rate of link for a period of time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on
link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory
(buffer) fills up
Introduction 1-23
Problem 24
Suppose you would like to urgently deliver
40 terabytes data from Ha Noi to Ho Chi
Minh. You have available a 100 Mbps
dedicated link for data transfer.
Would you prefer to transmit the data via
this link or instead use FedEx overnight
delivery? Explain.

Introduction 1-24
Problem 24 - answer
 40 terabytes = 40 * 1012 * 8 bits
 So, if using the dedicated link, it will
take 40 * 1012 * 8 / (100 *106 )
=3.200.000 seconds = 37 days.
 But with FedEx overnight delivery, you
can guarantee the data arrives in one
day.

Introduction 2-25
Two key network-core
functions
routing: determines forwarding: move
source-destination route packets from router’s
taken by packets input to appropriate
 routing algorithms router output

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1
1
011

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
Network Layer 4-26
Alternative core: circuit
switching
end-end resources
allocated to, reserved
for “call” between
source & dest:
 In diagram, each link has
four circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in
top link and 1st circuit
in right link.
 dedicated resources: no
sharing
 circuit-like
(guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not
used by call (no sharing) Introduction 1-27
Circuit switching: FDM versus
TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-28
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
packet switching allows more users to use
network!
example:
 1 Mb/s link
 each user: N

…..
• 100 kb/s when “active” users
• active 10% of time 1 Mbps link

 circuit-switching:
 10 users
 packet switching: Q: how did we get value 0.0004
 with 35 users,
probability > 10 active Q: what happens if > 35 users ?
at same time is less
than .0004

Introduction 1-29
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
Packet switching:
 Pros:
 great for bursty data
 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 Cons:
 excessive congestion possible: packet delay
and loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video
apps

Introduction 1-30
Internet structure: network of
networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs
(Internet Service Providers)
• residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected
• so that any two hosts can send packets to each
other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
• evolution was driven by economics and
national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current
Internet structure

Introduction 1-31
Internet structure: network of
networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other
access ISP?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access
net
… … net

access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…

…
to each other directly doesn’t

…
access access
…

net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
…

… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to one global
transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic
agreement.access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-34
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors ….

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access
net ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-35
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors …. which must be interconnected
Internet exchange point
access
access
…
access
net net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access
net
IXP ISP B access
net

access
net
ISP C
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net

Introduction 1-36
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect
access nets to ISPS
Internet exchange point
access
access
…
access
net net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access

access
peering link net

net regional net

access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google,
Microsoft, Akamai ) may run their own network, to
bring services, content close to end users
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
Content provider network
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IX IX IX
P P P
Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

 at center: small # of well-connected large networks

 “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT),
national & international coverage
 content provider network (e.g., Google): private network
that connects it data centers to Internet, often bypassing
Introduction 1-39
Read “Tier-1 network” from Wikipedia.
1. Which kind of ISPs does not pay for
transit traffic? Which one does?

Introduction 1-40
Contents
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-41
How do loss and delay
occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds
output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

Introduction 1-42
Four sources of packet
delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

dprop
dproc: nodal dqueue: queueing
processing delay
 check bit errors  time waiting at
 determine output output link for
link transmission
 typically < msec  depends on Introduction 1-43
Four sources of packet
delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

dprop
dtrans: transmission dprop: propagation delay:
delay:  d: length of physical link
 L: packet length (bits)  s: propagation speed in
 R: link bandwidth (bps) medium (~2x108 m/sec)
 dtrans = L/R dtrans and dprop  dprop = d/s
very different
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay Introduction 1-44
Problem 25
Suppose two hosts, A and B, are
separated by 15,000 kilometers and are
connected by a direct link of R = 1 Gbps.
Suppose the propagation speed over the
link is 2.5*108 meters/sec.
a. Calculate the bandwidth-delay product,
R*dprop.
Provide an interpretation of the
bandwidth-delay product.

Introduction 2-47
Problem 25
Suppose two hosts, A and B, are
separated by 15,000 kilometers and are
connected by a direct link of R = 1 Gbps.
Suppose the propagation speed over the
link is 2.5*108 meters/sec.
a. Calculate the bandwidth-delay product,
R*dprop.
Provide an interpretation of the
bandwidth-delay product.
Ans:
dprop= 15*106/2.5/108
R*dprop = (15*106)*(1*109/2.5/108)
Introduction 2-48
Problem 25 (cont)
b. Consider sending a file of 800,000 bits
from Host A to Host B. Suppose the file is
sent continuously as one large message.
What is the maximum number of bits that
will be in the link at any given time?

Introduction 2-49
Queueing delay (revisited)

average queueing
 R: link bandwidth

delay
(bps)
 L: packet length
(bits)
 a: average packet
arrival rate traffic intensity
= La/R
 La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0
 La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving
than can be serviced, average delay
infinite!
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss La/R -> 1
Introduction 1-50
“Real” Internet delays and
routes
 what do “real” Internet delay & loss look
like?
 traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router
along end-end Internet path towards
destination. For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i
on path towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission
and reply. 3 probes
3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-51
“Real” Internet delays, routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
3 delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

Introduction 1-52
Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer
has finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka
lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not at all buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A
rate
control /
B congestion
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost control at
the sender
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss Introduction 1-53
Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at
which bits transferred between
sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server, with file of link capacity R link capacity

F bits to send to s
bits/sec Rc bits/sec
client (server
sends bits (pipe that can
(fluid) into pipe) carry fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec)

Introduction 1-54
Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end
throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end

throughput?
Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck
link onlink
end-end path that constrains end-end
throughput
Introduction 1-55
Throughput: Internet
scenario
 per-connection
end-end Rs
throughput: Rs Rs
min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
 in practice: R or
c R
Rs is often
bottleneck Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-56
Contents
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-57
Protocol “layers”
Networks are
complex,
with many
“pieces”: Question:
 hosts is there any hope of
 routers organizing
 links of structure of
network?
various media
 applications
 protocols …. or at least our
discussion of
 hardware, networks?
software
Introduction 1-58
Organization of air travel
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-59
Layering of airline
functionality
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer
below
Introduction 1-60
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance,
updating of system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t
affect rest of system

Introduction 1-61
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting
network applications
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
 transport: process-process
data transfer transport
 TCP, UDP
 network: routing of network
datagrams from source to
destination link
 IP, routing protocols
 link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network
elements
 Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “on the wire” Introduction 1-62
ISO/OSI reference
model
 presentation: allow
applications to interpret application
meaning of data, e.g.,
encryption, compression, presentation
machine-specific session
conventions transport
 session: synchronization,
checkpointing, recovery network
of data exchange link
 Internet stack “missing”
physical
these layers!
 these services, if needed,
must be implemented in
application Introduction 1-63

 source Encapsulatio
message
segment Ht
M
M
application
transport
n
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-64
Introduction: summary
covered a “ton” of material!
 Internet overview
 what’s a protocol?
 network edge, core, access network
 packet-switching versus circuit-switching
 Internet structure
 performance: loss, delay, throughput
 layering, service models

Introduction 1-65