WEEK 2:
Cell: The Basic Unit of Life
August 2024 | Prepared by: Daniel Lance R. Nevado
Cell Theory is the Unifying Through his crude
foundation of cell Biology microscope,
Leeuwenhoek
The cell theory was proposed to discovered living
creatures in the pond
explain the observation that all water, which he
organisms are composed of cells named, animalcules
All organisms are composed of
one or more cells, and the life
processes of metabolism and
heredity occur within the cells.
Cells are the smallest living
things, the basic units of
organization of all organisms. The works of Schleiden and Schwann supported
the idea that both plants and animals are
Cells arise only by division of a composed of cells.
previously existing cell.
“Omni cellula e cellula”
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes are the simplest
organism.
Bacterial Structure:
In bacteria, the cytoplasm
is surrounded by a plasma
membrane
Most bacteria possess a
cell wall, and sometimes
also a capsule.
The cell wall maintains
the shape of the cell.
This cell wall is composed
of peptidoglycan, which
consists of a carbohydrate
matrix (polymers of
sugars) that is cross-linked
by short polypeptide units.
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes are the
simplest organism.
Bacterial Structure:
In bacteria, the DNA is
located in a single
circular, coiled
chromosome that
resides in a region of
the cell called the
nucleoid.
The many proteins
specified by bacterial
DNA are synthesized on
tiny structures called
ribosomes.
Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes are the
simplest organism.
Bacterial Structure:
Flagella (singular,
flagellum) are long,
threadlike structures
protruding from the
surface of a cell that
are used in locomotion.
Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are far more complex than prokaryotic cells.
The hallmark of the eukaryotic cell is compartmentalization.
This is achieved through a combination of an extensive
endomembrane system that weaves through the cell interior and
by numerous organelles.
The Nucleus Act as the
Information Center
The largest and most easily seen
organelle within a eukaryotic cell is the
nucleus (Latin, “kernel” or “nut”), first
described by the Scottish botanist
Robert Brown in 1831.
Nuclei are roughly spherical in shape,
and in animal cells, they are typically
located in the central region of the cell.
Many nuclei exhibit a dark-staining
zone called the nucleolus, which is a
region where intensive synthesis of
ribosomal RNA is taking place.
Chromatin: DNA packaging
In eukaryotes, the DNA is divided
into multiple linear
chromosomes, which are
organized with proteins into a
complex structure called
chromatin.
When cells divide, the chromatin
must be further compacted into a
more highly condensed state that
forms the X-shaped
chromosomes visible in the light
microscope.
The nucleolus: Ribosomal
subunit manufacturing
These ribosomal assembly areas
are easily visible within the
nucleus as one or more dark-
staining regions called nucleoli
(singular, nucleolus)
Ribosomes are the cell’s protein
synthesis machinery
Ribosomes are among the most
complex molecular assemblies
found in cells.
Each ribosome is composed of
two subunits (large and small
subunit), each of which is
composed of a combination of
RNA called ribosomal RNA
(rRNA).
Ribosomes can be thought of as
“universal organelles” because
they are found in all cell types
from all three domains of life.
The Endomembrane System
The interior of a eukaryotic cell is packed
with membranes that form an elaborate
internal, or endomembrane system.
The presence of these membranes in
eukaryotic cells marks one of the
fundamental distinctions between
eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
The largest of the internal membranes is
called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
The rough ER is a site of protein
synthesis
The rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER) gets its name from its pebbly
surface appearance.
It appears to be composed primarily of
flattened sacs, the surfaces of which are
bumpy with ribosomes.
The proteins synthesized on the
surface of the RER are destined to be
exported from the cell, sent to lysosomes
or vacuoles (described later in this
section), or embedded in the plasma
membrane.
The smooth ER has multiple roles
Regions of the ER with relatively few
bound ribosomes are referred to as
smooth ER (SER).
Enzymes anchored within the ER are
involved in the synthesis of a variety of
carbohydrates and lipids.
An important function of the SER is to
store intracellular Ca2+. In muscle cells,
for example, Ca2+ is used to trigger
muscle contraction.
Another role of the SER is the
modification of foreign substances to
make them less toxic. In the liver, the
The Golgi apparatus sorts and
packages proteins
Flattened stacks of membranes form a
complex called the Golgi body, or Golgi
apparatus
The individual stacks of membrane are
called cisternae (Latin, “collecting
vessels”), and they vary in number
within the Golgi body.
The Golgi apparatus functions in the
collection, packaging, and distribution
of molecules synthesized at one
location and used at another within the
cell or even outside of it.
A Golgi body has a front and a back,
The Golgi apparatus sorts and
packages proteins
Protein transport through the endomembrane
system:
Proteins synthesized by ribosomes on
the RER are translocated into the internal
compartment of the ER. These proteins may
be used at a distant location within the cell or
secreted from the cell.
They are transported within vesicles that bud
off the RER. These transport vesicles travel to
the cis face of the Golgi apparatus. There they
can be modified and packaged into vesicles
that bud off the trans face of the Golgi
apparatus
Vesicles leaving the trans face transport
proteins to other locations in the cell, or fuse
Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes
Membrane-bounded digestive vesicles, called
lysosomes, are also components of the
endomembrane system.
They contain high levels of degrading
enzymes, which catalyze the rapid
breakdown of proteins, nucleic acids, lipids,
and carbohydrates.
Throughout the lives of eukaryotic cells,
lysosomal enzymes break down old
organelles and recycle their component
molecules.
Peroxisomes: Peroxide utilization
Peroxisome contains enzymes involved in
the oxidation of fatty acids.
Peroxisomes get their name from the
hydrogen peroxide produced as a
by-product of the activities of
oxidative enzymes.
Peroxisomes also contain the enzyme
catalase, which breaks down hydrogen
peroxide into its harmless constituents
—water and oxygen.
Plants use vacuoles for storage and
water balance
Plant cells have specialized
membrane-bounded structures called
vacuoles.
Vacuole actually means blank
space, referring to its appearance
in the light microscope.
The membrane surrounding this
vacuole is called the tonoplast
because it contains channels for
water that are used to help the cell
maintain its tonicity, or osmotic
balance.
Mitochondria metabolize sugar to
generate ATP
Mitochondria (singular,
mitochondrion) are typically tubular or
sausage-shaped organelles about the
size of bacteria that are found in all
types of eukaryotic cells
Mitochondria are bounded by two
membranes:
smooth outer membrane,
inner folded membrane with
numerous contiguous layers called
cristae (singular, crista).
The cristae partition the
mitochondrion into two
compartments: a matrix, lying
inside the inner membrane;
intermembrane space, lying
Chloroplasts use light to generate ATP
and sugars
Chloroplasts contain the photosynthetic
pigment chlorophyll that gives most plants
their green color.
The chloroplast, like the mitochondrion,
is surrounded by two membranes
chloroplasts have closed compartments
of stacked membranes called grana
(singular, granum), which lie inside the
inner membrane.
each granum may contain from a few to
several dozen disk-shaped structures
called thylakoids.
Surrounding the thylakoid is a fluid
matrix called the stroma.
chloroplasts, leucoplasts, and
Three types of fibers compose the
cytoskeleton
Actin filaments are long fibers about 7 nm
in diameter. Each filament is composed of two
protein chains loosely twined together like
two strands of pearls (actin)
Microtubules, the largest of the cytoskeletal
elements, are hollow tubes about 25 nm in
diameter, each composed of a ring of 13
protein protofilaments
Intermediate filaments are the most
durable element of the cytoskeleton in animal
cells is a system of tough, fibrous protein
molecules twined together in an overlapping
arrangement
Centrosomes are microtubule-organizing
centers
Centrioles are barrel-shaped
organelles found in the cells of
animals and most protists.
They occur in pairs, usually
located at right angles to each
other near the nuclear
membranes.
The region surrounding the pair in
almost all animal cells is referred
to as a centrosome.
Flagella and Cilia aid movement
As pairs of microtubules move past
each other using arms composed of
the motor protein dynein, the
eukaryotic flagellum undulates, or
waves up and down, rather than
rotates.
Cilia are short cellular projections that
are often organized in rows.
Plant Cell walls provide protection and
support
The cells of plants, fungi, and many
types of protists have cell walls,
which protect and support the cells.
In plants, primary walls are laid
down when the cell is still growing.
Between the walls of adjacent cells
a sticky substance, called the
middle lamella, glues the cells
together.
Some plant cells produce strong
secondary walls, which are
deposited inside the primary walls
of fully expanded cells.
WEEK 2-4:
Biology: The Science of Life
August 2024 | Prepared by: Daniel Lance R. Nevado
