MEMORY

Memory is the process of retaining information over

time
- Margaret. W. Matlin
Life without memory
Can you imagine a life without memory? How
will that be?
• no remembrance of joyful moments
• no guilt and no misery over painful memories
• each and every moment would be a fresh experience
• each person would be a stranger
• every language would be a foreign language
• each and every simple task like dressing, cooking, biking
etc. becomes a challenge
• without memory, we would become ‘perpetual learners’
Anything to add???
 Memory - A brief Introduction
Introductory video:
https://youtu.be/EqdsQDM5Fys?si=IU8kvVmGs4SwCifV
Memory
• “Mnemosyne” -
Greek Goddess of
memory
• Mneumonic -
strategy
• Memory -
remembrance
Memory
 Memory is a “cognitive storage system” for
learned information.
 Memory is like a bank where we store
information and memories.
 Just as we withdraw money from a bank
whenever we need, we can “recall or
retrieve” information from memory.
 For the layman, memory is the ability to
reproduce but for the psychologist, memory
is a complex process
 An active system that receives information
from the senses, organizes it as it stores it
away, and then retrieves the information from
storage.
Definition of Memory
• An internal record or representation of some prior
event or experience
• A set of mental processes that receives, encodes,
stores, organizes, alters and retrieves information over
time
• Memory is our cognitive system for storing and
retrieving learned information.
• Memory is a psychological process involving encoding,
storage and retrieval of information.
 https://youtu.be/bSycdIx-C48
Processes of Memory
Encoding : The Keyboard
- Incoming information (stimuli from
environment) is first encoded or
changed into a usable form
- Conversion of information into a
form that can be stored in your
memory
- This step is like typing the data in
a computer.
- Failure : Not exposed to them or
not stored in a meaningful way
Storage : The Hard Disk
- After encoding, the information is stored or
held in the system
- Storage is the maintenance/Retention of
information in our memory
1.STM – Short Term Memory
2.LTM – Long Term Memory
- Failure to recall : Not adequately
rehearsed/stored
Retrieval : The screen
- Finally memories/information must be retrieved or taken
out of storage to awareness and used
- Retrieval is the process of searching, locating and
recovering information from the memory.
- Cues help to retrieve memories that have been stored in
the brain.

* Forgetting - the failure to retrieve information from the

memory - erasing information of a hard disk
Levels of Processing – Craik & Lockhart
(1972)
1. Structural
2. Phonemic
3. Semantic

Level 1: Shallow, physical aspects

Level 2: Intermediate, context of word, sound
Level 3: Deep, wider context, draw associations

Levels-of-processing theory proposes that deeper levels of

processing result in longer-lasting memory codes
Atkinson & Shiffrin model
 TYPES OF MEMORY
According to the stage model/ multistore model (Atkinson
and Shiffrin,1968), there are three memory systems. The
Sensory Memory (SM), the Short-Term Memory (STM), and
the Long-Term Memory (LTM), and each of these systems
have different features, and perform different functions.
Three Systems of Memory
• Sensory Memory: Exact replica of
stimulus: Lasts for a fraction of a second
• Short Term Memory: Stored according to
meaning: Lasts for 15-25 seconds
• Long term Memory: Relatively permanent
SENSORY MEMORY
The incoming information of anything first enters the sensory memory.
Sensory memory has a large capacity. However, as Atkinson and Shiffrin
(1968) proposed, the materials stored in the SM is only for a brief period
of time. Sensory memory has a few subsystems or sensory registers. The
visual experiences or images in the sensory memory are called Iconic
Images. The memory of such images is called Iconic Memory. Similarly,
auditory images in sensory memory are called Echoic Images, and the
memory is called Echoic Memory. Other subsystems are Haptic (Tactile),
olfactory (Smell) and Gustatory (Taste).
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory preserves information in its original sensory form
for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second - way-station/
sensory register
● Aids in initiating a response

● Afterimage

● Information to our senses

Iconic Memory : Visual Memories

Echoic Memory : Auditory memories

● Precision high; Duration short

Sensory memory: sub systems
Picture Source: www.simplypsychology.org
• Iconic memory: Also known as visual sensory memory,
iconic memory involves a very brief image. This type of
sensory memory typically lasts for about one-quarter to one-
half of a second.

• Echoic memory: Also known as auditory sensory memory,

echoic memeory involves a very brief memory of sound a bit
like an echo. This type of sensory memory can last for up to
three to four seconds.

• Haptic memory: Also known as tactile memory, haptic

involves the very brief memory of a touch. This type of
sensory memory lasts for approximately two seconds.
SHORT TERM MEMORY
Short-term memory is otherwise known as Primary Memory
or Working memory. It is the intermediate memory process
that exists between sensory memory and long-term
memory. STM holds small amount of information for a brief
period of time, usually for 25 to 30 seconds. In an average,
short-term memory can hold limited number of items only;
seven plus or minus two items. But there are two ways to
increase this limit, they are chunking and rehearsal.
SHORT TERM MEMORY
• Short-term memory (STM) is
a limited-capacity store that
can maintain unrehearsed
information for up to about
20 seconds
• Rehearsal - the process of
repetitively verbalizing or
thinking about information.
Limited Store : Unrehearsed information

George Miller (1956)

 Decay v/s Interference

Capacity 7 + 2 items

 Lost in 15-20 seconds

9620500381
 Chunking – Meaningful chunks - more
962 - 050 -
holding capacity 0381
A chunk is a group of familiar stimuli stored as a
single unit
Baddeley’s Model of Working (4+5) x 2 = ?

memory 3 + (12/4)
Working memory - A modular system for
temporary storage and manipulation of
information

● Phonological loop – speech, words, numbers

● Visuospatial sketch pad – visual

● Episodic buffer – integrate events, LTM-STM

● Central executive – coordination between the

components, division of attention - focuses
attention on the facts that you needed,
rehearses the information to transfer it to LTM
LONG TERM MEMORY
Long-Term Memory is a permanent store house of all information,
and it has a vast capacity. The amount of information stored in LTM
enables us to keep our personality, to get around in the environment
and maintain our lifestyle. LTM is highly organized and relatively
permanent in storage contain most of the historical experience of a
person.
Long Term Memory
●Long-term memory (LTM) is an unlimited capacity
store that can hold information over lengthy periods
of time
●Almost unlimited memory
●Evidence for LTM – Brain damage
Penfield – Electric Stimulation of Brain (Temporal Lobe) - recall
●Declarative
●Procedural
Explicit & Implicit Memory
● Explicit – Conscious
recollection of memories
- Eg – Episodic/ Semantic
● Implicit – Not consciously
aware of but affect
behaviour
- Eg – automatic tasks
● Priming : Exposure to a word
or a concept later makes it
easier to recall related
information
Declarative

●Factual Information - recalled and

consciously considered
●medial temporal lobe memory system
●Explicit Memory
●Two types : Episodic and Semantic
Episodic
● Occur in a particular Time/Place
● Autobiographical information
● Personal information
● Detailed information
Example : Your interview at Christ

Your best vacation

Your farewell/graduation
Semantic
●General information/facts about the
world
●non-personal information
●schemata
●SOORY/ SORRY
●2*2 = _____
Procedural

●Implicit Memory - not conscious of recalling

the skills
●Cerebellum
●Can perform as actions, not verbalize
●How to perform
Example – Cycling, playing an instrument, tying a shoelace
Langua
ge
 Language as CP
●Language as a cognitive process involves exploring various
linguistic theories, cognitive mechanisms, and sociocultural factors.
●Let's delve into Chomsky's theory, the linguistic relativity hypothesis
(Sapir-Whorf hypothesis), bilingualism, and dialects in the context of
language as a cognitive process:
 https://youtu.be/7Cgpfw4z8cw

Chomsky's Theory:
Noam Chomsky, a prominent linguist, proposed the theory of
transformational-generative grammar and Universal Grammar in
1960s.

From a cognitive perspective, Chomsky's theory suggests:

● Universal Grammar: Chomsky posits that humans are born with
an innate knowledge of a universal grammar that underlies all
human languages.
●This innate cognitive structure allows humans to acquire any
language they are exposed to.
• Deep Structure and Surface Structure: Chomsky's theory
includes the idea of deep structure (the underlying meaning of a
sentence) and surface structure (the actual arrangement of
words in a sentence). The brain processes and transforms deep
structures into surface structures when generating and
comprehending language.

• Transformation Rules: Transformational grammar involves

cognitive rules that manipulate deep structures to create
surface structures, facilitating the generation of sentences.
● These rules are used to derive a surface structure
from an initial phrase structure, and they act on the
abstract structural representations of sentences.
○ The surface structure is the derived structure.

Transformational rules can perform a variety of

transformations, including:
• Converting an active sentence into a passive one
• Converting a positive sentence into a negative or
interrogative one
• Transforming "what-questions" into "why-questions"
• Alteration of word order
Innateness Hypothesis:
● Chomsky's theory emphasizes the role of biological and
cognitive factors in language acquisition.
● He suggests that the human brain is hardwired for language
and that linguistic universals exist across languages.
Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis
(Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis):
● The linguistic relativity hypothesis: proposed by Edward
Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1929), suggests that language
shapes and influences thought.

Key points in relation to language as a cognitive process include:

● Cognitive Structure: According to this hypothesis, the structure
and vocabulary of a language can affect the way speakers of that
language think about and perceive the world. Different languages
may structure thought differently.
Strong and Weak Hypotheses:
There are strong and weak versions of the linguistic
relativity hypothesis.
The strong version claims that language determines
thought, while the weak version suggests that
language influences thought to some extent but does
not entirely determine it.
Cultural and Cognitive Impact:
● Language, as a cognitive tool, can impact
cognitive processes and cultural perspectives.
● The hypothesis highlights the interplay between
language and thought in shaping cognitive
experiences.
Bilingualism
Bilingualism involves the ability to speak and understand two or
more languages.

From a cognitive perspective:

Cognitive Flexibility: Bilingual individuals often exhibit cognitive
advantages, such as enhanced problem-solving skills, cognitive
flexibility, and improved executive functions.
The brain manages multiple languages and code-switching,
contributing to these cognitive benefits.
Neuroplasticity: Learning and using multiple languages can
influence brain structure and function. The cognitive processes
involved in switching between languages contribute to changes in
neural connectivity.

Bilingual Advantage: Research suggests that bilingualism can

enhance cognitive control, which is the ability to manage competing
cognitive demands, making bilingual individuals more proficient in
multitasking.
Dialects
Dialects are variations of a language spoken by a specific group of
people.

From a cognitive standpoint:

Cognitive Adaptation: Individuals who speak different dialects
adapt to the linguistic variations they encounter. The brain
processes and comprehends dialectal differences while maintaining
core linguistic structures.
●Sociocultural Context: Dialects are often closely tied to sociocultural
groups. Understanding and speaking different dialects can reflect
cultural and social identity, influencing cognitive processes related to
group membership.

●Code-Switching: Multilingual and dialect-speaking individuals often

engage in code-switching, transitioning between different linguistic
varieties. The cognitive processes involved in code-switching reflect
linguistic competence and adaptability.
Syntax
●Syntax is the study of sentence structure and the rules of grammar while
people can do what they want with language and many of them do syntax
helps common users of a language understand how to organize words so that
they make the most sense
“The through pasture the chased a dog rabbit”

●Using normal rules of syntax, our first example sentence means nothing
●But rearrange those exact words in a new order and they make perfect
syntactical sense ‘the dog chased a rabbit through the pasture’
Semantics
●Semantics is the study of the meaning of sentences
●What's the difference between these sentences? “I robbed a bank”
and “a bank robbed me”
●I robbed a bank does make sense in semantic terms while a bank
robbery does still make sense in syntax term. Why?
●Syntax is what we use to do our best to communicate on the most
basic level.

●Semantics helps us determine if there's any meaning to be found

pragmatic helps us to apply the correct meaning to the correct
situation
Pragmatics
● General overview: pragmatics takes semantics one step further,
because it's a study of the meaning of sentences within a certain
context

Example 1:
● Ron: hi Liz let's go to see a movie tonight
● Liz: I would love to but I need to do my homework

Example 2
● Jack: are you okay Rose?
● Rose: Yes, I’m okay Jack (sad face)
T
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 Inductive Vs. Deductive Thinking

●Inductive and deductive are commonly used in the context of

logic, reasoning, and science.
●Scientists use both inductive and deductive reasoning as part of
the scientific method.
●The difference involves whether the reasoning moves from the
general to the specific or from the specific to the general.
What does Inductive mean?
●Inductive is used to describe reasoning that involves using
specific observations, such as observed patterns, to make a
general conclusion.
●This method is sometimes called induction.
●Induction starts with a set of premises, based mainly on
experience or experimental evidence.
●It uses those premises to generalize a conclusion.
 Example of Inductive thinking
● Let’s say you go to a cafe every day for a month, and every day,
the same person comes at exactly 11 am and orders a
cappuccino. The specific observation is that this person has
come to the cafe at the same time and ordered the same thing
every day during the period observed.
 Ex. Cont.
● A general conclusion drawn from these premises could be
that this person always comes to the cafe at the same time
and orders the same thing.
● While inductive reasoning can be useful, it’s prone to being
flawed. That’s because conclusions drawn using induction
go beyond the information contained in the premises. An
inductive argument may be highly probable, but even if all
the observations are accurate, it can lead to incorrect
conclusions.
What does Deductive mean?
●Deductive reasoning (also called deduction) involves starting from
a set of general premises and then drawing a specific conclusion
that contains no more information than the premises themselves.

●Deductive reasoning is sometimes called deduction

(Note: that deduction has other meanings in the contexts of
mathematics and accounting).
Deductive Reasoning
●Deductive reasoning is a type of logical thinking where specific
conclusions are drawn from general premises.
●It is a foundational skill in mathematics, philosophy, and problem
solving.
●Deductive reasoning involves making valid inferences by
connecting premises to reach logically certain conclusions.
●The process typically moves from the general to the specific
 Example of Deductive Thinking
●Chickens are birds; all birds lay eggs; therefore, chickens lay eggs.

●Another way to think of it: if something is true of a general class

(birds), then it is true of the members of the class (chickens).