LECTURE NOTES (MODULE 1&2)

REVIEW OF BASIC CONCEPT OF

*** POWER

AND

*** THREE-PHASE
The concept of Power is of central importance in
electrical power systems and the review here will
serve to reinforce the power concepts encountered
in the electric circuit theory.
Consider a single – phase sinusoidal voltage
supplying a load
i(t)
+
v(t)
LOAD
-
Let the instantaneous, voltage be

V t  V M coswt  v 
• And the instantaneous current be
given by
it  I M cosWt  i 
• The instantaneous power P(t)
delivered to the load is the
product of voltage V(t) and
current i(t) given by
    I cosWt  
Pt  V t  i t   V M cos wt  V M i 2.1
 Pt  V I cosWt  cosWt  
M M V i

Using trigonometric identity i.e

1 1
cos A cos B= 2 cosA  B  2 cosA  B 
1 1
   
 Pt  V M I M  cos Wt  V  Wt   i  cos Wt  V  Wt  i  
2 2 
1
   
 V M I M cos  V   i  cos 2Wt  V  i
2

1
   
 V M I M Cos  V   i  Cos 2 Wt  V   V   i
2
 
1
  
 V M I M Cos  V   i  Cos 2 Wt  V Cos  V   i
2
  
  
 Sin 2 Wt  V Sin  V   i ] 
• The – root mean square (rms) value of
V
V(t) is |V| = 2 and the rms value of
m

• i(t) is |I| = Im /√2

Pt  | V | I Cos 1  Cos2Wt  V  | V || I | Sin Sin 2Wt  V 

PR (t) PX (t)
2.2
• PR(t) = Energy flow into the circuit
• PX(t) = Energy borrowed and returned by
the circuit.
• Where θ is the angle between voltage and
current or the impedance angle.  is the
positive if the load is inductive, (i.e
current is lagging the voltage) and θ is
negative if the load is capacitive (i.e
Current is leading the voltage.
• Now, the instantaneous power has been
decomposed into two components. The
first part of equation 2.2 i.e
 P t  | V || I | Cos  | V || I | CosCos2Wt  
R 2.3 V

• Again, the second term of equation 2.3,

which has a frequency twice that of the
source, accounts for the sinusoidal
variation in the absorption of power by
the resistive portion of the load. Since the
average value of this sinusoidal function
is zero, the average power developed by
the load is given by P = |V| |I| cos θ
2.4
• This is the power absorbed by the
resistive component of the load and
is also referred to as the active power
or real power. The product of the rms
voltage value and the rms current
value |V| |I| is called the Apparent
Power and is measured in units of
volt ampere.
• The product of the apparent power
and the cosines of the angle between
voltage and current yields the real
power. Because cos θ plays a key role
in the determination of the average
power, it is called power factor.
• When the current leads the voltage,
the power factor is considered
leading.
• The second component of equation
2.2
• i.e Px(t) = |V| |I| sin θ Sin 2 (wt + θV)
2.5
• This equation pulsates with twice the
frequency and has an average value of
zero. This component accounts for power
oscillating into and out of the load
because of its reactive element (inductive
or capacitive). The amplitude of this
pulsating power is called reactive power
and is designated by Q
• Q = |V| |I| Sin θ
2.6
• Both P and Q have the same dimension.
However, in order to distinguish between
the real and the reactive power, the term
“Var” is used for the reactive power (Var
is volt – ampere reactive). For an
inductive load, current is lagging the
voltage,  = (v - i)  0 and Q is
positive, whereas, for a capacitive load,
current is leading the voltage,
• Θ = (θV – θi) < 0 and Q is – ve.
• A careful study of equation (2.3) and (2.5)
reveals the following characteristics of the
instantaneous power.
i)For a pure resistor, the impedance angle is zero
and the power factor is unity (UPF), so that the
apparent and real power arc equal. In this way,
the electric energy is transformed into thermal
energy.
ii) If the circuit is purely inductive, the
current lags the voltage by 90 o and
the average power is zero. Therefore,
in a purely inductive circuit, there is
no transformation of energy from
electrical to non-electrical form.
• The instantaneous power at the terminal
of a purely inductive circuit oscillates
between the circuit and the source. When
P(t) is +ve, energy is being stored in the
magnetic field associated with inductive
element and when P(t) is – ve, energy is
being extracted from the magnetic fields
of the inductive elements.
iii) If the load is purely capacitive, the
current leads the voltage by 90 o, and
the average power is zero, so there is
no transformation of energy from
electrical to nonelectrical form. In a
purely capacitive circuit, the power
oscillates between the source and the
electric field associated with the
capacitive elements.
2.2 COMPLEX POWER
The rms voltage phase of
v(t) = Vmcos(wt+ θi) and the rms
current phasor of i(t) = Im cos (wt+θi)
shown in figure 2.3 are
V | V |   V and I | I |  i
 The complex power, S, may be found by
multiplying the term V by conjugate of I
or vise versa. i.e. S = VI*
• The volt – amperes reactive absorbed by
and inductive load shall be considered
positive and by a capacitive load
negative; hence “VI*” is a conversions
recommended by IEC.
 :. VI* = |V| |I| <θv - θi = |V||I| θ
= |V||I| Cos θ + j |V||I| Sinθ
• The above equation defines a complex
quantity where its real part is the average
(real) power P and its imaginary part is
the reactive power Q. thus the complex
power designated by S is given by
S = VI* = P + j Q 2.7
• The magnitude of S, |S| = P  Q ,
2 2

is the apparent power; its unit is

volt – ampere and the larger units
are KVA or MVA. Apparent
power gives a direct indication of
rating and is used as a rating unit
of power equipment.
• Apparent power has practical
significance for an electric utility
company since a utility company
must supply both average and
apparent power to consumers.
• If the load Impedance is Z then
• V = ZI or I = V/Z
• From equation 2.7
 
S VI ZII R | I |  jX | I | 2.8
2 2

• Similarly, substituting for2 I into 2.7

 VV
yields S VI    

|V | 2.9
Z Z
• :. The impedance of the complex
2
power S is given by Z |V |

S
2.3 THREE – PHASE SYSTEM
Before the modeling and analysis of power
system is pursued in details it is necessary to
outline some basic ideas. These include the
nature of three – phase systems, the per unit
and circuit representation. For the purpose of
analysis and modeling, the per-phase
equivalent circuit is developed for the 3 – ϕ
system under balanced condition.
• As we are already aware that to transmit power
with single – phase alternating current, we need
two wires (live wire and neutral). However,
distribution lines usually have only 4 wires
because distribution is done using three phases
and the 4th wire is neutral. The advantage of this
is that since the three phases are usually 120 o
out of phase, their phasor addition will be zero
if the supply is balanced.
• The voltage between any of the
phases and the neutral is called the
phase – to neutral voltage or phase
voltage VP or Vϕ
• It is usual to call the voltage between
any two lines as the line – to line
voltage or line voltage VL.
• If the R – phase voltage is VR = VP
<o (with R as reference), then the
remaining phase voltages would be
2 and 4
VY VP
  
3 V B

3
• 2.4 BALANCED THREE – PHASE
CIRCUITS
The generation, transmission and
distribution of electric power is
accomplished by means of three–phase
circuits at the generating station, three
sinusoidal voltages are generated having
the same amplitude but displaced in phase
by 120o. this is called a balanced source.
• In a three–phase system, the instantaneous
power delivered to the external loads is
constant rather than pulsating as it is in a
single–phase circuit. Also, three-phase motors,
having constant torque, start and run much
faster than single–phase circuits. This feature
of three-phase power, coupled with the
inherent efficiency of its transmission
compared to single–phase (less wire for the
same delivered power), accounts for its
universal use.
• A power system has Y – connected generators
and usually includes both ∆ – and Y –
connected loads. Note here that generators are
rarely ∆ – connected, because if the voltages
are not perfectly balanced, there will be a net
voltage, and consequently a circulating
current, around the ∆. Also the phase voltage
arc lower in the Y – connected generator and
thus less insulation is required.
• Note:
• A three–phase load is connected in
the same way as the machine
windings. The load is balanced when
each phase takes equal current i.e.
has equal impedance. With the wye
or star system, the phase currents are
equal to the current in the lines.
• The four-wire system is of particular
use for low voltage distribution
networks in which consumers are
supplied with a single – phase supply
taken between a line and neutral.
• This supply is often 240V and line–
to–line voltage 415V. the 240V
supply often comes into a house from
a center–tapped transformer which in
effect gives a choice of 240V (Large
Domestic appliances)
• Or 120V (lights etc).
• 2.5 Y – connected loads
Figure 2.5 shows a Y – y-
connected generator supplying
balanced Y – y-connected loads
through a three–phase line.
*** Figure***
• Assuming a positive phase
sequence (phase order ABC) the
generated voltages are
EBN E   0, E
o
P Bn
| E P |  120 and E Cn E P |  240
o o
• In power systems, great care is taken
to ensure that the loads of
transmission lines are balanced. For
balanced loads, the terminal voltages
of the generator VAN, VBN, and VCN
and the phase voltages Van, Vbn, and
Vcn at the load terminal are balanced.
• For ‘phase A’ these are given by
 V E  Z I
AN An S a

V V  Z I
an AN L a
• To find the relationship between the line
voltages (line – to – line voltage) and the
phase voltage(Line to – neutral voltages), we
assume a positive or ABC, sequence with the
line–to–line neutral of the ‘A’ phase voltages
as reference.
 O o
thus V an | V P |  o ,V bn | V P |   120
o
and V an
|V P |   240
• Where |VP| represents the magnitude of the
phase voltage (line–to–line neutral voltage)
• Now, the line voltages at the load terminals
in term of the phase voltage are found by
the application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
V V  V
ab an bn
 o o

| V P | 1 o  1  120  3 | V P |  30
o

| V | 1  120  1  240  3 | V |   90

o o o
V V  V
bc bn cn P P

| V | 1  240  1 o   3 | V | 150

o o o
V V  V
Cn cn an P P
 2.6 ∆ - Connected Loads
• A balanced ∆ connected load (with equal
phase impedance) is shown in fig. 2.5.2
***Fig.2.6; A ∆ connected Load ***
• It is clear from inspection of the circuit
that the line voltages are the same as
phase voltages
VL = VP
• From phasor representation
knowledge, with Iab chosen as
reference,
• Then
|I
o
I  |
ab P o
o
I bc
| I P
|   120

I Ca
| I P
|   240
• Where |IP| represents the magnitude
of the phase current. The relationship
between phase and line currents can
be obtained by applying Kirchhoff’s
law at the corners of ∆.
I a  I ab   o

I Ca | I P | 1 o  1  240  3 | I P |   30
o

| 1  120  1 o  3 | I
o o o
I b  I bc  I ab | I P P
|   150
| 1  240  1  120 
o o o
I I
c Ca
 I bc
| I P 3 | I |   90
P

• If the rms of any of the line currents

are denoted by IL, then one of the
important characteristics of the ∆ -
connected three–phase load may be
expressed as
o
IL  3 | IP| 30
• Note: For analyzing the network
system, it is convenient to replace the
∆ - connected circuit with an
equivalent Y – connected circuit
using conversion of ∆ - Y
transformation method (Your lecture
1.1.3)
• 2.7 ANALYSIS OF THE PHASE
BALANCED SYSTEM
In a balanced 3–wire system, a
hypothetical neutral line may be
considered and the conditions in one
phase only determined. There are two
common methods for doing this – single
circuit of a 3 – ϕ system and equivalent
circuit for 3 – ϕ balanced system
• 2.7.1 PER – PHASE
ANALYSIS
The current in the neutral of the
balanced Y – connected loads
shown in fig. 2.5 is given by
I n
 I a  I b  I c 0
• Since the neutral carries no current, a
neutral wire of any impedance may be
replaced by any other impedance,
including a short circuit and an open
circuit. The return line may not actually
exist, but regardless, a line of zero
impedance is involved between the two
neutral points.
• The balance power problems are then
solved on a per-phase basis. It is
understood that the other two phases
carry identical currents except for the
phase shift.
• We may then look at only one phase,
say “phase A” as shown in fig 2.7
• The neutral is taken as datum and
usually, a single-subscript notation is
used for phase voltages.
• If the load is a three phase circuit
connected in a ∆, it can be
transformed into Y by using the ∆ to
Y transformation. When the load is
balanced, the impedance of each leg
of Y is one-third of the ∆, as given
below:
• i.e. ZY = Z∆/3
• The circuit is modeled by the single-phase
equivalent circuit.
• In this case, the supply voltage E P is a phase
voltage; the supply current is the phase current
IP, the load voltage VP is a phase voltage and
the power PP is the power and is one phase. If
we compare these phase quantities with line
quantities we have
 E  3EL P

I I
L P

P
P P

3
• The total power and reactive power
consumed by a balanced three-phase load
for both Y and ∆ connections are given
by
P  3 V .I Cos  ; Q 3 V .I Sin
• Where V = line – to – line voltage
• I = line current
• Φ = angle between load phase
current and load phase voltage.
• Alternatively;

P 3V Ph I Ph Cos ; Q 3V Ph I Ph Sin

• Also recall that the quantity of S(volt-
ampere) known as the complex power
may be found by multiplying V by the
conjugate of I or vice - versa.
• ie. S=VI*
• (Convention is recommended by IEC)
 2.8 Per – Unit Representation
In the analysis of power system networks
instead of using actual quantities it is usual to
express them as fractions of a defined base unit
quantity, such as rated or full load values. These
fractions are called per unit (denoted by p.u)
and the p.u value of any quantity is defined as
P.U = Actual quantity (in any unit)
the base or reference value in the
same unit
Example: Nominal voltage at busbar A is 33kV and actual voltage at A is 30kV. The per unit voltage at A is:
Voltage in p.u = Voltage in kV
Base voltage in kV
= 30kV
33kV

= 0.91pu
Although the use of p.u values may at first sight seem a rather indirect method of expression, there are in fact great
advantages; They are as follows:
(i) The per unit impedances and losses of apparatus of the same general type are in the same order regardless of size.
(ii) The use of the factors of and 3 in three-phase calculations are reduced.
(iii) Per unit values lend themselves more readily to automatic computation.
(iv) The per-unit values of impedance, voltage, and current of a transformer are the same regardless of
whether they are referred to the primary or the secondary side. This is a great advantage since the
different voltage levels disappear and the entire system reduces to a system of simple impedance.
(v) The per-unit gives a clear idea of relative magnitudes of various quantities, such as voltage,
current, power and impedance.
2.8.1 Relationship between Units
The relationship between units in per-unit
system depends on weather the system is
single phase or three phase.
2.8.1.1 Per-Unit in single Phase
Assuming that the independent base
values are power and voltage, we have
Pbase = 1pu
Vbase = 1pu
Alternatively, the base value for
power may be given in terms of
reactive or apparent power, in which
case we have, respectively,
Qbase = 1pu or Sbase = 1pu
The rest of the unit can be derived
from power and voltage using the
equations:
S = IV, P = Scos, Q = Ssin
Ibase = Sbase = 1pu
Vbase
Zbase = Vbase = V2base = V2base = 1pu
Ibase Ibase Vbase Sbase

Ybase = 1 = 1pu
Zbase
2.8.1.2 Three phase circuit
In a three phase circuit, a pu phase voltage has the same numerical value as the corresponding pu
line voltage. With a line voltage of 100kV and a rated line voltage of 132kV, the pu value is 0.76.
The equivalent phase voltages are 100/ kV and 132/ kV and hence pu value is again 0.76. The
actual values of R, XL and XC for lines, cables and other apparatus are phase values.
Now,
Sbase = Vbase Ibase
Ibase = Sbase
Vbase

Zbase = Vbase = V2base

Ibase Sbase
2.8.2 Per Unit Impedance of Transformer
Consider a transformer (single phase) in which the total series impedance at two windings referred to the primary is Z1
*** Fig 2.8.1. (Equivalent circuit of single phase transformer)***
Pu impedance = I1Z1 ;
V1
I1 and V1 are the rated values
The total impedance referred to the secondary = Z 1N2 and this is in pu notation
= Z 1N2 (I2/V2)

= Z 1N2(I1/N)(1/V1N)
= Z 1I1
V1
Hence the pu impedance of a transformer is independent of the winding considered.