COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE &

DESIGN
Course Instructor: Ms. Rimsha Khan
Computer Architecture
 Computer architecture refers to the design and
organization of a computer's components and how they
interact to execute instructions efficiently.
 Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): The ISA is the part
of the computer architecture related to programming. It
defines the set of instructions that the CPU can execute.
 Microarchitecture describes the design features and
circuitry of the central processing unit itself.
 The system architecture (with which we are chiefly
concerned in this section) determines the main hardware
components that make up the physical computer system
and how they’re interconnected.
System Architecture
 The main components required for a computer system
are listed below.
 Motherboard
 Central processing unit (CPU)
 Random access memory (RAM)
 Read-only memory (ROM)
 Input / output (I/O) ports
 The system bus
 A power supply unit (PSU)
Motherboard/Mainboard
 A motherboard is the main printed circuit board
(PCB) in a computer. The motherboard is a computer's
central communications backbone connectivity point,
through which all components and external peripherals
connect.
 The motherboard supplies power to the processor,
RAM, hard disk, and other hardware components.
 The components that connect through them include
chipsets, central processing units (CPU), BIOS
and memory. The external peripherals include Wi-Fi,
Ethernet and graphics cards with the graphics
Motherboard Components
 Co-processor: A co-processor performs routine mathematical tasks, the core
processor is freed up from this computation and its time is saved.
 CMOS Chip: It provides power to the CMOS chip, which stores important system
information such as the date, time, and hardware settings in the CMOS memory.
 AGP Slot: An Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a point to point channel that is
used to connect graphic cards to a computer’s motherboard.
 PCI Slots: A peripheral component interconnect (PCI) expansion slot is a type of
slot that allows you to add additional cards to your computer system. These
slots are typically used to add sound cards, network cards, or other types of
interface cards.
 Power Supply Connectors: These connectors delivers electrical power from
the power supply unit (PSU) to the motherboard, enabling it to power
components like the CPU, memory, and peripherals.
 Heat Sink Connector: It provides power and control to the CPU fan, helping to
regulate the fan's speed and ensure proper cooling of the processor by
dissipating heat from the heat sink.
Motherboard Components
 BIOS: BIOS identifies, configures, tests and connects computer hardware to the
Operating System immediately after a computer is turned on.
 Game Port: The game port on a motherboard connects analog joysticks and game
controllers for input in gaming applications.
 Audio Port: The audio port on a motherboard allows the connection of audio
devices like speakers and microphones
 VGA Port: VGA port connects to a monitor or display for transmitting analog video
signals.
 Comport: A communications port, also known as a serial port or COM port, allows
you to connect external devices for data transfer like printers, modems, and
scanners.
 USB Port: USB Port allows you to connect USB devices to your computer.
 PS/2 keyboard Mouse Port: PS/2 keyboard port connects a keyboard to the
motherboard, while the PS/2 mouse port connects a mouse.
 Parallel Port: Parallel ports were commonly used to connect printers, scanners, and
external storage devices like ZIP drives.
Motherboard Components
 Condenser: Condenser store electrical energy, filter power supply variations, and
smooth out voltage fluctuations to ensure stable operation of the motherboard and
its components.
 CPU Socket: A CPU socket is a specific part on a motherboard that is purposely
designed to hold a central processing unit (CPU).
 RAM Slot: A RAM slot is a physical connector on a computer motherboard designed
to hold and connect RAM.
 FDD Connector: The FDD (floppy disk drive) connector on a motherboard allows for
the connection of a floppy disk drive, enabling data transfer from floppy disks
 Primary and slave IDE Connector: The primary and slave IDE connectors on a
motherboard are used to connect hard drives and optical drives, with the primary
connector typically designated for the main drive (master) and the slave connector
for an additional drive, allowing for data transfer between the drives and the
motherboard.
 Start/restart/hdd/power/IED: The start/restart connector powers the computer on
or off, the HDD connector connects the hard drive for data transfer, the power
CPU
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the brain of the
computer. It is the electronic circuit responsible for executing
the instructions of a computer program. It is sometimes referred
to as the microprocessor or processor.
 Subcomponents:
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic (addition,
subtraction, etc.) and logical operations (AND, OR, NOT).
 Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor by
telling different parts of the CPU and system how to respond to
instructions.
 Registers: Small, fast storage locations inside the CPU used for
temporary storage of data and instructions.
 Role in the System: Executes the system’s instructions and
CPU
How a CPU Executes Instructions
 A CPU (Central Processing Unit) works together with memory to
execute a computer program. Most computers execute one
instruction at a time, though very quickly. Before the CPU can
execute an instruction, the program instructions and data must be
loaded into memory from an input or storage device. Once the data
and instructions are in memory, the CPU follows a process to
execute them.
 4 Steps of CPU Instruction Execution:
 Fetch:

The control unit retrieves the instruction from memory.

 Decode:

The control unit figures out what the instruction means and
moves the necessary data from memory to the Arithmetic/Logic
How a CPU Executes Instructions
 Execute:
The ALU performs the required operation (either arithmetic or
logic) on the data.
 Store:

The ALU stores the result back in memory or a register.

 Execution Time (E-time):

Execute and Store together are called E-time.

 Machine Cycle: The combination of I-time and E-time makes up a
full machine cycle.
Registers
 Registers are high speed storage areas in the CPU. All
data must be stored in a register before it can be
processed.
Holds the memory location
Memory Address
MAR of data that needs to be
Register
accessed.
Holds data that is being
MDR Memory Data Register transferred to or
from memory.
Where intermediate
AC Accumulator arithmetic and logic results
are stored.
Contains the address of
PC Program Counter the next instruction to be
executed.
Memory and Storage
 Memory (Primary/ Main Memory)
 Primary Memory stores data and instructions temporarily while
the CPU processes them. It’s typically fast and volatile (loses its
data when power is off).
 Types:
 Random Access Memory (RAM): Temporary storage for data

and instructions the CPU is currently working on. More RAM

generally improves system performance.
 Cache Memory: A smaller, faster type of memory that stores frequently
accessed data to speed up processes. The CPU uses cache to reduce
access time to data stored in slower main memory (RAM).
 Read Only Memory (ROM): It is a type of computer memory
that is used to permanently store data that does not need to be
modified.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
 RAM is a computer’s primary memory. It is a very fast
solid state storage medium that is directly
accessible by the CPU.
 Any open programs or files on a computer are
temporarily stored in RAM whilst being used.
 Being volatile, any data stored in RAM will be lost
when power is removed.
 Data is copied from secondary storage (HDD,
SSD) to RAM as and when it is needed. This is
because using a HDD as the primary memory would
cause a computer to perform much slower (a HDD or
 Types of RAM
RAM is of two types:
• Static Random Access Memory (SRAM)
• Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
SRAM DRAM
It stores information as long as the power
It stores information as long as the power
is supplied or a few milliseconds when the
is supplied.
power is switched off.
Transistors are used to store information in
Capacitors are used to store data in DRAM.
SRAM.
To store information for a longer time, the
Capacitors are not used hence no
contents of the capacitor need to be
refreshing is required.
refreshed periodically.
SRAM is faster compared to DRAM. DRAM provides slow access speeds.
It does not have a refreshing unit. It has a refreshing unit.
These are expensive. These are cheaper.
Types of RAM

SRAM DRAM
In this bit is stored in the form of electric
In this bit are stored in voltage form.
energy.

These are used in cache memories. These are used in main memories.

Consumes less power and generates less

Uses more power and generates more heat.
heat.

SRAMs are more resistant to radiation than DRAMs are less resistant to radiation than
DRAM SRAMs

SRAM has higher data transfer rate DRAM has lower data transfer rate

SRAM is used in high-speed cache memory DRAM is used in lower-speed main memory

SRAM is used in high performance

DRAM is used in general purpose
applications
Read Only Memory (ROM)
 ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a type of non-
volatile memory used in computers and other
electronic devices. Unlike RAM, ROM retains its
data even when the device is powered down.
 Characteristics of ROM:

 Non-volatile: Data is preserved even without power.

 Read-only: Traditionally, data can only be read from
ROM and not written to it (though some types allow for
limited writing).
 Permanent storage: Ideal for storing firmware and
Types of ROM

EPROM (Erasable
PROM (Programmable read-
Programmable read-only
only memory): It can be
memory): It can be
programmed by the user. Once
reprogrammed. To erase data
programmed, the data and
from it, expose it to ultraviolet
instructions in it cannot be
light. To reprogram it, erase all
changed.
the previous data.
MROM(Mask ROM): Mask ROM
EEPROM (Electrically erasable
is a kind of read-only memory,
programmable read-only
that is masked off at the time of
memory): The data can be
production. Like other types of
erased by applying an electric
ROM, mask ROM cannot enable
field, with no need for ultraviolet
the user to change the data
light. We can erase only portions
stored in it. If it can, the process
of the chip.
would be difficult or slow.
Secondary memory/Storage
 Secondary memory (also known as auxiliary memory
or permanent storage) refers to storage devices that
are used to store data and applications permanently.
Unlike primary memory (like RAM), secondary memory
retains data even when the power is turned off.
 CPU directly does not access these memories, instead
they are accessed via input-output routines.
 The contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can
access it.
 For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.
Types of Secondary Memory

Secondary
Memory

Fixed Removable
Storage Storage

Hard Disk Solid-State Flash CD, DVD, Blu USB Flash

Drives (HDD) Disk (SSD) Memory -ray Discs Drive
 Types of Secondary Memory
 Fixed Storage: Permanent storage solutions within a
computer, such as HDDs and SSDs, suitable for daily
operations and large data storage.
 Types of Fixed Storage:
 Hard Disk Drives (HDDs):

 Storage Type: Uses spinning disks (platters) coated

with magnetic material to read and write data.
 Speed: Generally slower because it has moving
parts that need time to spin and access data.
 Durability: More susceptible to physical damage
due to moving parts.
 Capacity: Typically offers larger storage capacities
at a lower cost, making it great for storing large
amounts of data.
Types of Secondary Memory
 Solid State Drive (SSD)
 Storage Type: Uses flash memory with no

moving parts.
 Speed: Much faster because it can access

data almost instantly, leading to quicker boot

times and faster file transfers.
 Durability: More durable since there are no

moving parts, making it less likely to break if

dropped.
 Capacity: Generally more expensive per

gigabyte than HDDs, but prices are

decreasing and capacities are increasing.

Types of Secondary Memory
 Removable Storage: Removable storage refers to
storage devices that can be easily removed from a
computer or system and can be used to transfer data
between devices.
 Types of removable Storage:
 USB Flash Drives
 Small, portable devices that connect to computers via
USB ports.
 Ranges from a few gigabytes to several terabytes.
 Great for transferring files between devices and for
backing up data.
Types of Secondary Memory
 CD Drive:
 CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use

optical rays, usually lasers, to read and write data.

 They are very cheap.

 CDs are inserted in CD drives built into CPU cabinet. They are

portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD and carry it
with you.
 DVD Drive:
 DVD stands for Digital Video Display.

 DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times the data held by

CDs.
 They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high

storage capacity.
Types of Secondary Memory
 Blu Ray Disk: Blu Ray Disk (BD)
is an optical storage media used
to store high definition (HD) video
and other multimedia filed. BD
uses shorter wavelength laser as
compared to CD/DVD.
 This enables writing arm to focus
more tightly on the disk and
hence pack in more data. BDs can
store up to 128 GB data.
Input/output Ports
 An input/output (I/O) port, also known as an I/O
interface, is a connection point on a computer or
electronic device that allows data to be transferred
between the device and external devices or
peripherals.
 Types of I/O Ports:
 Serial Ports
 Parallel Ports
 USB Ports
 VGA Ports
 HDMI Ports
Input/output Ports
I/O Ports
Port Type Data Speed Purpose Type
Transmission
Serial Port One bit at a time Slow Connect older Input/output
(serial devices like
communication) modems
Parallel Port Multiple bits at Faster than serial Mostly used for Output
once (parallel printers
communication)

USB Port Digital Very fast Connects Input/Output

transmission modern
peripherals (e.g.,
keyboards, flash
drives)
VGA Port Analog video Moderate (older Connects Output
transmission technology) monitors,
projectors (video
only)
HDMI Port Digital audio and Fast Connects high- Output
video definition
transmission displays, TVs
System Bus
 A bus connects independent components of a computer
system to pass signals between them.
 The computer system bus is the method by which data is
communicated between all the internal pieces of a computer.
 There are three types of buses in a computer, which all flow
together.
 Data Bus: The data bus allows data to travel back and forth

between the microprocessor (CPU) and memory (RAM).

 Address Bus: The address bus carries information about the

location of data in memory.

 Control Bus : The control bus carries the control signals that

make sure everything is flowing smoothly from place to place.

System Bus
Power Supply Unit (PSU)
 A power supply or PSU (Power Supply Unit) is a
hardware component of a computer that supplies all
other components with power.
 The power supply converts a 110-115 or 220-230 volt
AC (Alternating Current) into a steady low-
voltage DC (direct current) usable by the computer.
 The power supply is located at the back of the
computer, usually at the top. However, many more
recent tower computer cases house the power supply at
the bottom back of the case.
 In a desktop computer case (all-in-one), the power