Microscopy, Characteristics

of Life, and Cell Structure

Objectives:
At the end of this unit, the student should be able to:
• Identify the parts of the microscope and its function
• Describe the organization and characteristics of life
• Differentiate organ systems, organ, tissues, cells from each other
• Differentiate plants and animal cells according to presence and
absence of certain organelles
• Describe the structures of microorganisms using a microscope; and
• Explain why the cells are considered the basic structural and
functioning unit of all organisms.
 Microscope
• When it comes to biology, Microscopes are important
because biology mainly deals with the study of cells
(and their contents), genes and all organisms. Some
organisms are so small that they can only be seen by
using magnifications of 40x-1000x, which can only be
achieved with the use of a microscope. Cells are too
small to be seen with the naked eye.
• Microscopes are not just used to observe cells and
their structure but are also used in many industries.
For example, electron microscopes help create and
observe extremely tiny electrical circuits found on
Silicon microchips.
• Scanning microscopes are much more sophisticated
and they have higher magnifications than light-
refracting microscopes.
Microscope :
History
Microscope: History

http://youtube.com/watch?v=TJyOQmdwHhE
Common Types of Microscope
There are 2 type of microscope
1. Simple microscope-
composed of one lens and
provide a relatively weaker
magnifying power (5x)
2. Compound microscope-
composed of 2 or more
lenses with powerful
magnification
• Compound Light Microscope- is
the usual microscope that is
used for general observation of
Types of
microscopic specimens (objects
being studied under the Compound
microscope). It makes use of the Microscopes
visible light to illuminate
specimens and has multiple
lenses that can magnify up to
1000x and resolves up to 0.4nm.
• Electron Microscopes- are highly
sophisticated and complex that
they can magnify specimens up
to 100,000x. They use the beam
of electrons and electromagnets
for focusing, intensifying the
resolution (clarity), and
magnifying the image.
Types of Electron Microscope
1. Transmission Electron Microscope-The transmission electron
microscope is used to view thin specimens (tissue sections,
molecules, etc) through which electrons can pass generating a
projection image. The TEM is analogous in many ways to the
conventional (compound) light microscope. TEM is used, among
other things, to image the interior of cells (in thin sections), the
structure of protein molecules (contrasted by metal shadowing), the
organization of molecules in viruses and cytoskeletal filaments
(prepared by the negative staining technique), and the arrangement
of protein molecules in cell membranes (by freeze-fracture).
Transmission Electron Microscope

Source: https://www.hitachi-hightech.com/global/science/products/microscopes/electron-microscope/tem/ht7800.html
Types of Electron Microscope
2. Scanning electron microscopy depends on the
emission of secondary electrons from the
surface of a specimen. Because of its great
depth of focus, a scanning electron microscope
is the EM analog of a stereo light microscope. It
provides detailed images of the surfaces of
cells and whole organisms that are not possible
by TEM. It can also be used for particle
counting and size determination, and for
process control. It is termed a scanning
electron microscope because the image is
formed by scanning a focused electron beam
onto the surface of the specimen in a raster
pattern. https://www.atascientific.com.au/sem-imaging-applications-practical-uses-scanning-electron-microscopes/
Scanning electron
microscope
Penicillum sp. under light microscope stained with Penicillum sp. under scanning electron microscope
lactophenol (450x magnification)
Parts of a Compound Light
Microscope: Structural
Component
Structural Component
The three basic, structural components of
a compound microscope are the head,
base and arm.
• Head/Body houses the optical parts in
the upper part of the microscope
• Base of the microscope supports the
microscope and houses the illuminator
• Arm connects to the base and supports
the microscope head. It is also used to
carry the microscope.
Optical Component Parts of a Compound Light
There are two optical systems in a compound microscope: Microscope: Optical
Eyepiece Lenses and Objective Lenses:
Component
• Eyepiece or Ocular is what you look through at the top of
the microscope. Typically, standard eyepieces have a
magnifying power of 10x. Optional eyepieces of varying
powers are available, typically from 5x-30x.
• Eyepiece Tube holds the eyepieces in place above the
objective lens. Binocular microscope heads typically
incorporate a diopter adjustment ring that allows for the
possible inconsistencies of our eyesight in one or both
eyes. The monocular (single eye usage) microscope does
not need a diopter. Binocular microscopes also swivel
(Interpupillary Adjustment) to allow for different
distances between the eyes of different individuals.
• Objective Lenses are the primary optical lenses on a
microscope. They range from 4x-100x and typically,
include, three, four or five on lens on most microscopes.
Objectives can be forward or rear-facing.
• Nosepiece houses the objectives. The objectives are Parts of a Compound Light
exposed and are mounted on a rotating turret so that Microscope: Optical
different objectives can be conveniently selected.
Standard objectives include 4x, 10x, 40x and 100x Component
although different power objectives are available.
• Coarse and Fine Focus knobs are used to focus the
microscope. Increasingly, they are coaxial knobs - that
is to say they are built on the same axis with the fine
focus knob on the outside. Coaxial focus knobs are
more convenient since the viewer does not have to
grope for a different knob.
• Stage is where the specimen to be viewed is placed. A
mechanical stage is used when working at higher
magnifications where delicate movements of the
specimen slide are required.
• Stage Clips are used when there is no mechanical
stage. The viewer is required to move the slide
manually to view different sections of the specimen.
• Aperture is the hole in the stage through which the
base (transmitted) light reaches the stage.
• Illuminator is the light source for a microscope,
Parts of a Compound
typically located in the base of the microscope. Light Microscope:
Most light microscopes use low voltage, Optical Component
halogen bulbs with continuous variable lighting
control located within the base.
• Condenser is used to collect and focus the light
from the illuminator on to the specimen. It is
located under the stage often in conjunction
with an iris diaphragm.
• Iris Diaphragm controls the amount of light
reaching the specimen. It is located above the
condenser and below the stage. Most high
quality microscopes include an Abbe
condenser with an iris diaphragm. Combined,
they control both the focus and quantity of
light applied to the specimen.
• Condenser Focus Knob moves the condenser
up or down to control the lighting focus on the
specimen.
Levels of Biological Organization
• Atom
• Molecule
• Cell
• Tissue
• Organ
• Organ system
• Organism
• Population
• Community
• Ecosystem
• Biosphere
Characteristics of life
• Chemical or molecular make up- organic and inorganic molecules
• Cellular make up- made up of cells
• Growth- increase in size and volume due to nutrients and essential molecules obtained
from food.
• Reproduction ( Asexual, sexual)
• Metabolism ( Anabolism, Catabolism)
• Excretion- ability to remove toxic waste
• Definite form, size and Lifespan-
• Sensitivity to stimuli (irritability)- phototropism, geotropism, thigmotropism
• Adaptation- ability to adapt to its environment to survive.
• Movement- capability to move from one place to another ( motile and non motile
organism)
Classical cell theory
by Rudolf Virchow
1. All organisms are made
up of cells.
2. Cells are the basic units
of life.
3. Cells comes from pre-
existing cells that have
multiplied.
Modern studies and interpretation of the cell theory lead
to the discovery of the key roles and functions of cell.
1. The energy of organism is
formed in the cells
• Cells are responsible fort he
conversion of monomer
molecules to form the life energy
ATP.
Example: Glucose id converted in
the cell to become the life energy
ATP.
2. Organisms can be made of one or
more cells.
a) Microscopic organism like bacteria,
protozoa, and the like are made up
of only one cell.
b) Macroscopic organisms like
humans, jellyfishes, frogs, plants
and the like are made up of more
than one coordinated cells.
3. DNA, which is the blueprint of life,
can be replicated (copied) and passed
from cell to cell through cell division.
4. An organism carrying
certain chemical
compositions of cells is the
same with the species
where it belongs
a) Species of organisms are
different from one another,
but organisms in a species
share the same chemical
composition their cells have
5. The activities in an
organism are dependent on
the activities done by its
cells.
• The function done by a part of
an organism is the with the
function done by the cells of
that part.
Example: The function of the
leaves is to get sunlight, which is
also the work done by the cells
of the leaves.
Types of Cell: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
1. Prokaryotic cells- (Greek: pro
means “before” karyon means
“nut or kernel”)unicellular cells
with no membrane bound
organelle. No nucleus.
2. Eukaryotic cells- ( Greek: Eu
means “true”)unicellular and
multicellular cells with a
membrane bound organelle.
With true nucleus.
Parts and
function:
Prokaryotic cell
• Composed of Lipid bilayer and a
protein
Mitochondria
• The inner membrane is the
site of ATP production
(electron transport chain)
• It has a circular DNA ( not
labeled in the diagram)
inside the inner membrane.
It can replicate
independently from the cell
• Symbiotic theory
 Chloroplast
• Site of photosynthesis in plants
 Nucleus
• Nucleolus is composed of
ribosomes
• Chromatin contains the
DNA coiled in a protein
called histones
• Nuclear membrane
separates the nucleus from
the cytoplasm
• Nuclear pore allows the
entry and exit of materials
Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
Bodies, Lysosomes, Vacuole
Types of Cell: Animal Cell and Plant Cell
 Recombinant DNA Technology
• Recombinant DNA Technology Recombinant DNA technology has been effectively used to
is defined as “the joining produce various human proteins in microorganisms, such as
together of DNA molecules insulin and growth hormone, used in the treatment of
diseases (see Chapter 4: Recombinant DNA Technology and
from different organisms and Genetically Modified Organisms). Unlike chemically
inserting it into a host organism synthesized drugs, these are biomacromolecules—primarily
to produce new genetic endogenous proteins, and present a variety of special
combinations that are of value considerations and concerns:
• whether the molecule produced through rDNA
to science, medicine, technology is biologically equivalent to the naturally
agriculture and industry.” occurring one
• as these are mostly proteins, will they result in
immunogenic reactions that would limit their usefulness.
Safety issues in recombinant
DNA technology include:
• ”Gene pollution” of the
environment resulting in
“superweeds,” antibiotic-
resistant microbes
• Health effects of foods
from GMOs
• Allergenicity/adverse
immune
reactions/effectiveness of
pharmaceutical
compounds produced
using rDNA technology
• Risks in gene therapy
CRISPR (clustered regularly interspaced short
palindromic repeats)
• CRISPR is a family of DNA sequences found in
the genomes of prokaryotic organisms such as
bacteria and archaea. These sequences are
derived from DNA fragments of
bacteriophages that had previously infected
the prokaryote.
• It is currently the simplest, most
versatile and precise method of
genetic manipulation and is
therefore causing a buzz in the
science world.
• CRISPR CAS-9 – is an enzyme that acts like a
“scissor” to cut specific section of DNA
sequence.
Artificial Cloning(Reproductive Cloning)

Artificial cloning is defined as the deliberate

production of genetically identical individuals.
Each newly produced individual is a clone of the
original. Monozygotic (identical) twins are
natural clones. Clones contain identical sets of
genetic material in the nucleus—the
compartment that contains the chromosomes—
of every cell in their bodies. Thus, cells from two
clones have the same DNA and the same genes
in their nuclei.

The two methods used for reproductive cloning

thus far are as follows:
• somatic cell nuclear transfer
• embryo splitting
Dolly (1996-2003) was cloned by Keith Campbell, Ian Wilmut and colleagues at
the Roslin Institute, part of the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and the
biotechnology company PPL Therapeutics, based near Edinburgh.
Microorganisms
Fungi, Protozoans, Bacteria, Viruses
 Microorganism
• Microbiology- the study of the biology of microscopic
organisms - viruses, bacteria, algae, fungi, slime molds, and
protozoa. The methods used to study and manipulate these
minute and mostly unicellular organisms differ from those used
in most other biological investigations.
Importance of
Microorganism
Importance of
Microorganism
 Source: Google search

Antrachnose caused by Bacterial leaf blightin rice caused

Colletotrichum sp. by Xanthomonas oryzae

Source: Google search

 Fungi
• Microscopic fungi include the bread
mold, yeast, penicillum and
aspergillus.
• They are considered decomposers of
the ecosystem
• Saccharomyces cerevisiae- yeast is
used in fermentation industry and
food production
• Penicillum nonatum- source of
antibiotic penicillin
• Aspergillus flavus- source of citric acid
 Fungi
• Mycorrhizae- a species of fungi
live in a close association with
some plants by providing the
plants nutrients and water
• Mycosis -infection with or disease
caused by a fungus.
• Tinea capitis- causative agent of
athlete’s foot
• Pneumocystis carinii- causative
agent of pneumonia in HIV
positive people
 Protozoans (Protists)
• Protozoans are the animal-like protists.
They are unicellular and just like
animals can move about in their
environment. Most protozoans are
free living however, some species can
cause illness.
• They vary in shape and kind of
locomotor structure: they can have
either flagella, cilia or pseudopodia.
• Brownian movement-the uncontrolled
or erratic movement of particles in a
fluid due to their constant collision
with other fast-moving molecules.
 Protozoans (Protists)
• Amoeba is a unicellular protozoan
whose shape is irregular. A species
Entamoeba histolytica is a parasite that
causes amoebic dysentery and can
cause bleeding ulcer at the GI tract.
• Trypanosoma sp. is an infectious
protozoan that is transmitted by tsetse
fly which causes African sleeping
sickness.
• Plasmodium sp. is a non-motile parasitic
protozoan which is transmitted through
an Anopheles mosquito bite that causes
malaria.
 Bacteria
• Bacteria are smaller than the
microscopic fungi and
protozoans and very much
smaller than individual cells of
plants and animals. In fact, they
are the smallest living cells.
• Types of Bacteria:
• Coccus- spherical shape
• Bacillus- rod shape
• Spirilla and spirochete- spiral or
coiled bacterium
 Bacteria
• Bacteria and disease
• Germ theory of disease was developed by Louis
Pasteur ( a French scientist and a father of modern
microbiology)

• Bactria and Decay

• Decomposers
• Food spoilage and wound infection ( Clostridium
botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas
aurigenosa)
• Beneficial Activities of Bacteria
• Food industry e.g. yoghurt, nata de coco, natto
 Viruses
• Unlike microscopic fungi, protozoans
and bacteria,viruses lacks the
characteristics that can be attributed
to living things.
• SCIENTIST CONSIDER THEM AS A
MARGINAL ORGANISM- they are
living when they are come in contact
and associated with living things;
when they are separated from living
things, they are inanimate objects
and can be stored in the form of
crystals of various shape.
 Viruses
• The invention of electron microscope in 1930
paved the way for their identification.
• Under an electron microscope, viruses appear
as a core of DNA or RNA molecule
surrounded by a capsid.
• The capsid is a coat of small protein units. In
some types, the capsid may be covered with
an envelope that is surrounded with spikes.
• Viruses are pathogenic and are known to
infect plants, animals, protozoans, algae,
humans and even bacterial cell.
 Chapter Recap
• The microscope is a tool that is used for viewing minuscule object.
• The historical development of microscopy began when Romans discovered the lens. It is
then followed by the invention of the first compound microscope by Zacharias Janssen.
• Galileo created the first telescope. Leeuwenhoek crafted his own simple microscope that
made him see bacteria and other microscopic specimens
• Hooke saw the presence of cells after he viewed a thin slice of cork in his crude microscope
• Lister spent his time modifying and improving the compound microscope, which is the
basis of today’s microscope.
• Microscopes can be simple and compound.
• Compound microscope can be light or electron microscope
• Electron microscope are classified as transmission and scanning electron microscope in
which both use beam of electrons for magnification.
 Chapter Recap
• Biotechnology refers to the applied biology
• Recombinant DNA technology creates multiple DNA from the fused bacterial plasmid and the DNA
with gene of interest
• Somatic or artificial cloning involves the fusion of 2 cells.
• Dolly was the first cloned sheep that came from udder cell of a donor sheep and egg cell of another.
• Microorganisms thrive in different types of habitats. These organisms belong to four different
groups: protozoans, fungi, bacteria and viruses.
• The hierarchy of life shows the organization of life from the microscopic to macroscopic level.
• The cell theory was proposed by many cytologists and was paved by Robert Hooke through his
discovery of cells.
• Cells can be procaryotic or eukaryotic.
• There are major comparisons between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells as well as with animal
cells.
 References

Online References Textbook References

• http://youtube.com/watch?v=TJyOQmdw • Valdoz, M. P., Abistado, J. M.,
HhE
Mariano , J. M., & Madriaga, E. A.
• https://www.magnusopto.com/blog/post/i
mportant-of-microscope-in-our-daily-life.h (2013). Worktext in Science and
tml Technology Science Links for Grade
• https://www.hitachi-hightech.com/global/ 7. Sampaloc, Manila, Philippines:
science/products/microscopes/electron-mi
croscope/tem/ht7800.html Rex Bookstore, Inc.
• https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Tran • Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L.,
smission-electron-microscopy-TEM-images Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., &
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s_fig5_256451906 Jackson, R. B. (2014). Campbell
• https://www.atascientific.com.au/sem-ima biology (Vol. 9). Boston: Pearson.
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