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15 views

Fdocuments - in - Chapter 2 Data Manipulation

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ronthefourth
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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You are on page 1/ 29

Chapter 2: Data Manipulation

• 2.1 Computer Architecture


• 2.2 Machine Language
• 2.3 Program Execution
• 2.4 Arithmetic/Logic Instructions
• 2.5 Communicating with Other Devices
• 2.6 Other Architectures

2-1
Computer Architecture

• Central Processing Unit (CPU) or


processor
– Arithmetic/Logic unit versus Control unit
– Registers
• General purpose
• Special purpose
• Bus
• Motherboard

2-2
Figure 2.1 CPU and main memory
connected via a bus

2-3
Stored Program Concept

A program can be encoded as bit patterns


and stored in main memory. From there,
the CPU can then extract the instructions
and execute them. In turn, the program to
be executed can be altered easily.

2-4
Terminology

• Machine instruction: An instruction (or


command) encoded as a bit pattern
recognizable by the CPU
• Machine language: The set of all
instructions recognized by a machine

2-5
Machine Language Philosophies

• Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC)


– Few, simple, efficient, and fast instructions
– Examples: PowerPC from Apple/IBM/Motorola
and SPARK from Sun
Microsystems
• Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)
– Many, convenient, and powerful instructions
– Example: Pentium from Intel

2-6
Machine Instruction Types

• Data Transfer: copy data from one location


to another
• Arithmetic/Logic: use existing bit patterns
to compute a new bit patterns
• Control: direct the execution of the
program

2-7
Figure 2.2 Adding values stored in
memory

2-8
Figure 2.3 Dividing values stored in
memory

2-9
Figure 2.4 The architecture of the
machine described in Appendix C

2-10
Parts of a Machine Instruction

• Op-code: Specifies which operation to


execute
• Operand: Gives more detailed information
about the operation
– Interpretation of operand varies depending on
op-code

2-11
Figure 2.5 The composition of an
instruction for the machine in
Appendix C

2-12
Figure 2.6 Decoding the instruction
35A7

2-13
Figure 2.7 An encoded version of the
instructions in Figure 2.2

2-14
Program Execution

• Controlled by two special-purpose


registers
– Program counter: address of next instruction
– Instruction register: current instruction
• Machine Cycle
– Fetch
– Decode
– Execute

2-15
Figure 2.8 The machine cycle

2-16
Figure 2.9 Decoding the instruction
B258

2-17
Figure 2.10 The program from Figure 2.7
stored in main memory ready for execution

2-18
Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step
of the machine cycle

2-19
Figure 2.11 Performing the fetch step
of the machine cycle (cont’d)

2-20
Arithmetic/Logic Operations

• Logic: AND, OR, XOR


– Masking
• Rotate and Shift: circular shift, logical shift,
arithmetic shift
• Arithmetic: add, subtract, multiply, divide
– Precise action depends on how the values are
encoded (two’s complement versus floating-
point).

2-21
Figure 2.12 Rotating the bit pattern
65 (hexadecimal) one bit to the right

2-22
Communicating with Other Devices
• Controller: An intermediary apparatus that
handles communication between the computer
and a device
– Specialized controllers for each type of device
– General purpose controllers (USB and
FireWire)
• Port: The point at which a device connects to a
computer
• Memory-mapped I/O: CPU communicates with
peripheral devices as though they were memory
cells

2-23
Figure 2.13 Controllers attached to a
machine’s bus

2-24
Figure 2.14 A conceptual representation
of memory-mapped I/O

2-25
Communicating with Other Devices
(continued)

• Direct memory access (DMA): Main


memory access by a controller over the
bus
• Von Neumann Bottleneck: Insufficient
bus speed impedes performance
• Handshaking: The process of
coordinating the transfer of data between
components

2-26
Communicating with Other Devices
(continued)

• Parallel Communication: Several


communication paths transfer bits
simultaneously.
• Serial Communication: Bits are
transferred one after the other over a
single communication path.

2-27
Data Communication Rates

• Measurement units
– Bps: Bits per second
– Kbps: Kilo-bps (1,000 bps)
– Mbps: Mega-bps (1,000,000 bps)
– Gbps: Giga-bps (1,000,000,000 bps)
• Bandwidth: Maximum available rate

2-28
Other Architectures

• Technologies to increase throughput:


– Pipelining: Overlap steps of the machine cycle
– Parallel Processing: Use multiple processors
simultaneously
• SISD: No parallel processing
• MIMD: Different programs, different data
• SIMD: Same program, different data

2-29

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