Power Distribution and

Utilization
Power Factor

Dr. Attique Ur Rehman

Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology
Introduction
 Power Factor
 Power Triangle
 Disadvantages of Low Power Factor
 Causes of Low Power Factor
 Power Factor Improvement
 Power Factor Improvement Equipment
 Importance of Power Factor Improvement
 Meeting the Increased kW Demand on Power Stations
Current Lag/Lead ?
Power Factor
 The cosine of angle between voltage and current in an AC circuit is known as Power Factor.
 In other words, the term cos φ is referred to as the power factor (pf). It is the ratio of active power (kW)
to the Apparent power (kVA) of an electrical installation.

 Power factor is the measurement of how effectively electrical equipment converts electrical
power (supplied by the power utility) into a useful power output.
 The higher the power factor, the more effectively electrical power is being used and vice versa.
 Low power factor is expensive and inefficient, with many utility companies charging extra,
(reactive power charge), for sites with a poor power factor.
 Low power factor can also reduce the capacity of electrical distribution system by increasing current
flow and causing voltage drops.

Inductive circuits have lagging power factors.

Capacitive circuits have leading power factors.
Power Factor
 An inductive circuit taking a lagging current I from supply voltage V; the angle of lag being φ. The
current I can be resolved into two perpendicular components, namely;
 I cos φ in phase with V
 I sin φ 90o out of phase with V

 Component I cos φ is known as active or wattful component, whereas component I sin φ is called
the reactive or wattless component.
 The reactive component is a measure of the power factor.
 Circuit having small reactive current, I sin φ, will have high power factor and vice-versa.

 Usual practice is to attach the word lagging or leading with the numerical value of the power
factor to signify whether the current lags or leads the voltage.
 Power factor can also be expressed in percentage, e.g., 0.8 lagging power factor may be expressed as
80% lagging.
Power Triangle
 Analysis of the power factor can also be made in terms of power drawn by the AC circuit.
 Multiply each side of current triangle oab by voltage V, and we get the power triangle OAB.

OA = VI cos φ ; represents the active power in watts or kW

AB = VI sin φ ; represents the reactive power in VAR or kVAR
OB = VI ; represents the apparent power in VA or kVA
Power Triangle
 OB2 = OA2 + AB2
 Apparent Power2 = Active Power2 + Reactive Power2
 kVA2 = kW2 + kVAR2

 Power Factor
 Cos φ = =

 Low power factor is due to lagging reactive power

 kVAR = kVA sin φ = sin φ = kW tan φ

 For leading currents, the power triangle becomes reversed

 If a device taking leading reactive power, e.g., capacitor, is connected in parallel with the load, then the
lagging reactive power of the load will be partly neutralized, thus, improving the power factor of the
load.
Power Triangle
 The power factor of a circuit can be defined in one of the following three ways,

 Power Factor = cos φ = cosine of angle between V and I

 Power Factor = =

 Power Factor = =
Disadvantages of Low Power Factor
 Power factor plays an important role in AC circuit since power consumed depends upon
this factor.

 Single Phase Supply

 P = VLIL cos φ
 IL = The load current is inversely proportional to the power factor - lower the
power factor, higher is the load current and vice-versa.
 Three-Phase Supply
 P = VLIL cos φ
 IL =
Disadvantages of Low Power Factor
 Power factor less than unity results in the following disadvantages

 Large kVA rating of equipment

 Greater conductor size
 Large copper losses
 Poor voltage regulation
 Reduced handling capacity of system
Disadvantages of Low Power Factor
 Large kVA Rating of Equipment
 Transformers are rated in KVA or MVA while electrical machines are rated in kW or MW (also the power
factor is mentioned on the nameplate)
 kVA =
 kVA rating is inversely proportional to the power factor, i.e., smaller the power factor, larger the kVA
rating. Therefore, at low power factor, the kVA rating of the equipment has to be made more, making
the equipment larger and expensive.

 Greater Conductor Size

 To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power at constant voltage, the conductor will have to carry
more current at low power factor. This necessitates large conductor size.
Disadvantages of Low Power Factor
 Large Copper Losses
 The large current at low power factor causes more I2R losses in all the elements of the supply system,
resulting in poor efficiency.

 Poor Voltage Regulation

 The large current at low lagging power factor causes greater voltage drops in alternators, transformers,
transmission lines and distributors, resulting in the decreased voltage available at the supply end, thus
impairing the performance of the utilization devices.
 In order to keep the receiving end voltage within permissible limits, extra equipment (i.e., voltage regulators) is
required.

 Reduced Handling Capacity of System

 The lagging power factor reduces the handling capacity of all the elements of the systems. It is because
the reactive component of current prevents the full utilization of installed capacity.
Causes of Low Power Factor
 Low power factor is undesirable from economic point of view
 The following are the cause of the low power factor
 Most of the AC motors are of induction type (1φ and 3φ) which have low lagging power factors
 Arc lamps, electric discharge lamps, and industrial heating furnaces operate at low lagging power factor
 Load on power system is varying; being high during morning and evening, and low at other times
 During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increases the magnetization current. This results in
the decreased power factor.
Power Factor Improvement
 Low power factor is mainly due to the fact that most of the power loads are inductive and,
therefore, take lagging currents.
 In order to improve the power factor, some devices taking leading power should be connected in
parallel with the load.

 Capacitor - Draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralizes the lagging reactive
component of load current.
 Raises the power factor of the load.
Power Factor Improvement by Capacitor
 Consider a single-phase load taking lagging current I at a power factor cos φ1
 Capacitor C is connected in parallel with the load. The capacitor draws current IC which leads the
supply voltage by 90o. The resulting line current I’ is the phasor sum of I and IC and its angle of lag
is φ2.

 φ2 < φ1 → cos φ2 > cos φ1

 Power factor of the load is improved
Power Factor Improvement by Capacitor
 Circuit current I′ after power factor correction is less than the original circuit current I.
 The active component remains the same before and after power factor correction, as only the
lagging reactive component is reduced by the capacitor.
I cos φ1 = I′ cos φ2
 The lagging reactive component is reduced after power factor improvement and is equal to the
difference between lagging reactive component of load (I sin φ1) and capacitor current (Ic).
I′ sin φ2 = I sin φ1 − IC

VI cos φ1 = VI ′ cos φ2
Active power (kW) remains unchanged

VI′ sin φ2 = VI sin φ1 − VIC

Net kVAR after pf correction = Lagging kVAR before pf correction − leading kVAR of equipment
Power Factor Improvement Equipment
 Normally, the power factor of the whole load on a large generating station is in the region of 0.8
to 0.9. however, sometimes it is lower and in such cases it is generally desirable to take special
steps to improve power factor.

 Power factor can be improved using the following equipment

 Static Capacitor
 Synchronous Condenser
 Phase Advancers
Static Capacitor
 Power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors in parallel with the equipment operating
at lagging power factor.
 The capacitor draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralizes the lagging reactive
component of load current.
 Raises the power factor of the load.
 Static capacitors are invariably used for power factor improvement in factories
 For 3-phase loads, the capacitors can be connected in delta or star configuration.
Static Capacitor
 Advantages
 Low losses
 Require little maintenance as no rotating parts
 Easily installed as they are light and require no foundation
 Can work under ordinary atmospheric conditions.

 Disadvantages
 Short service life ranging 8 - 10 years
 Easily damaged if the voltage exceeds the rated value
 Once damaged, their repair is uneconomical.
Synchronous Condenser
 A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-exited, and, therefore, behaves as a
capacitor.
 It can be made to operate at unity and leading power factor by just increasing its excitation voltage, i.e.,
by increasing the field current.
 When such a machine is connected in parallel with the supply, it takes a leading current which
partly neutralizes the lagging reactive component of the load.
 An over-excited synchronous motor running on no load is known as synchronous condenser.
 In other words, a synchronous motor when just used for improving the power factor is known as
Synchronous Condenser. It is normally installed at the receiving end of a supply line when using
capacitor bank is found uneconomical.

A synchronous electric motor is an AC electric motor in which, at steady state, the

rotation of the shaft is synchronized with the frequency of the supply current; the
rotation period is exactly equal to an integral number of AC cycles.
Synchronous Condenser
 Used at major bulk supply substations for power factor improvement
Synchronous Condenser
 Advantages
 By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor can be changed by any
amount. This helps in achieving stepless control* of power factor
 Motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents
 The faults can be removed easily.

 Disadvantages
 Considerable losses in the motor
 Maintenance cost is high
 Produces noise
 Except in sizes above 500 kVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of the same rating
 As the synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, therefore, auxiliary equipment has to be
provided for this purpose.

* Power factor improvement with capacitors can only be done in steps by switching on the capacitors
in various groupings. However, with synchronous motor, any amount of capacitive reactance can be
provided by changing the field excitation.
Phase Advancers
 Phase advancers are used to improve the power factor of the induction motors.
 The low power factor of the induction motor is due to the fact that the its stator winding draws exciting
current which lags behind the supply voltage by 90o .
 If the exciting amperes turns can be provided from some other AC source, then the stator winding will
be relieved of exciting current, and the power factor will be improved.
 Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter. The phase advancer is mounted on the same shaft as the
main motor and is connected in the rotor circuit of the motor.
 It provides exciting ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip frequency. By providing more ampere turns
than required, the induction motor can be made to operate on leading power factor like an over-excited
synchronous motor.
 Pros & Cons
 Lagging kVAR drawn by the motor are considerably reduced
 Can be conveniently used where the use of synchronous motor is inadmissible.
 However, not economical for motors below 200 H.P.
Importance of Power Factor Improvement
 Consumers* have to pay electricity charges for their maximum demand (in kVA) plus the units
consumed.
kVA = → Power Factor ↑ kVA ↓
Consequently, there will be annual saving due to maximum demand charges

 Generators in power station are rated in kVA but the useful output depends upon kW output.
kVA = → kW = kVA ×
Number of units supplied depends upon the power factor → Power Factor ↑ kWh ↑
Consequently, increases the earning capacity of the power station.

* Consumers refers to industrial and other big consumers.

 Meeting Increased kW Demand on Power
Station
 Sometimes power station is required to deliver more kW to meet the increase in power demand.
This can be achieved by either of the following two methods

 Increasing the kVA capacity at the same power factor

 Extra cost will be incurred to increase the capacity of the station.

 Improving the power factor without increasing the kVA capacity of the station
 Also involve extra cost on account of power factor correction equipment.

Power factor is very crucial for any electrical power system as it tells the amount of power wasted and consumed by it.
Taking corrective measures will result in reduced power losses, increased voltage stability and eventually result in lowering the electric utility bills.
Numerical Problem #1

An alternator is supplying a load of 300 kW at a pf of 0.6 lagging. If the power factor is raised to
unity, how many more kilowatts can alternator supply for the same kVA loading?
Numerical Problem #2

A single-phase motor connected to 400 V; 50 Hz supply takes 31.7 A at a power factor of 0.7
lagging. Calculate the capacitance required in parallel with the motor to raise the power factor to
0.9 lagging.
Numerical Problem #2