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Ab9189 - Lecture 5

FM

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12 views20 pages

Ab9189 - Lecture 5

FM

Uploaded by

hamid7h
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Artificial Intelligence

Ms. Aiman
Propositional logic in Artificial
intelligence?

Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic


where all the statements are made by propositions.

A proposition is a declarative statement which is


either true or false.

It is a technique of knowledge representation in


logical and mathematical form.
Some basic facts about propositional logic

 Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it


works on 0 and 1.

 In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to


represent the logic, and we can use any symbol for a
representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.

 Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot


be both.

 Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or


function, and logical connectives.

 These connectives are also called logical operators.


Some basic facts about propositional logic

The propositions and connectives are the basic elements


of the propositional logic.

Connectives can be said as a logical operator which


connects two sentences.

A proposition formula which is always true is


called tautology, and it is also called a valid sentence.

A proposition formula which is always false is


called Contradiction.

A proposition formula which has both true and false


values is called Contingency.
Some basic facts about propositional logic

Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions


are not propositions such as "Where is Rohini", "How
are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.
Syntax of propositional logic

The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable


sentences for the knowledge representation. There are
two types of Propositions

1. Atomic Propositions

2. Compound propositions
Syntax of propositional logic

1. Atomic Proposition

Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It


consists of a single proposition. These are the sentences
which must be either true or false.
Syntax of propositional logic

2. Compound proposition

Compound propositions are constructed by combining


simpler or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and
logical connectives.
Logical Connectives

Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler


propositions or representing a sentence logically.

We can create compound propositions with the help of


logical connectives.

There are mainly five connectives, which are given as


follows:
Logical Connectives

1. Negation

A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. It can be


true or false.

Ex- I’m taking class.

Truth Table
Logical Connectives

2. Conjunction

A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is


called a conjunction.

Example: Rohan is intelligent and hardworking. It can be


written as,

P= Rohan is intelligent,
Q= Rohan is hardworking. → P∧ Q.

Truth table for conjunction is given below


Logical Connectives

3. Disjunction

A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is


called disjunction, where P and Q are the propositions.

Example: "Ritika is a doctor or Engineer",


Here P= Ritika is Doctor. Q= Ritika is Engineer, so we can
write it as P ∨ Q.
Logical Connectives

4. Implication

A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication.


Implications are also known as if-then rules. It can be
represented as

If it is raining, then the street is wet.


Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is
represented as P → Q
Logical Connectives

5. Biconditional

A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence,


example If Ali is breathing, then he is alive

P= If Ali is breathing, Q= He is alive, it can be


represented as P ⇔ Q.
Logical Connectives

Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic


Connectives.
Logical Connectives

Truth table with three propositions

We can build a proposition composing three


propositions P, Q, and R. This truth table is made-up
of 8n Tuples as we have taken three proposition
symbols.
Precedence of connectives

Note: For better understanding use parenthesis to make


sure of the correct interpretations. Such as ¬R∨ Q, It can
be interpreted as (¬R) ∨ Q
Logical equivalence
Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional
logic.

Two propositions are said to be logically equivalent if and


only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each
other.

Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical


equivalence, we can write it as A⇔B. In below truth table
we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical
hence A is Equivalent to B
Properties of Operators

Commutativity:
P∧ Q= Q ∧ P, or
P ∨ Q = Q ∨ P.
Associativity:
(P ∧ Q) ∧ R= P ∧ (Q ∧ R)
(P ∨ Q) ∨ R= P ∨ (Q ∨ R)
Identity element:
P ∧ True = P,
P ∨ True= True.
Distributive:
P∧ (Q ∨ R) = (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R).
P ∨ (Q ∧ R) = (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R).
DE Morgan's Law:
¬ (P ∧ Q) = (¬P) ∨ (¬Q)
¬ (P ∨ Q) = (¬ P) ∧ (¬Q).
Double-negation elimination:
¬ (¬P) = P.
Limitations of Propositional logic

We cannot represent relations like ALL, some,


or none with propositional logic.

Example:

• All the girls are intelligent.


• Some apples are sweet.

Propositional logic has limited expressive


power.

In propositional logic, we cannot describe


statements in terms of their properties or
logical relationships.

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