Electrical

Measurements

Dr. Nehad Salah El din Anwar Ali

Lecturer In Electrical Power and Machines Department.
Electrical and Electronic
Measurements and
Instruments

by Prithwiraj Purkait
On genesis library (http://gen.lib.rus.ec/)
Course Content
 Measurement system
 Electrical units and dimensions
 Error Measurements
 Measurement of Resistors
 Measurement of Capacitors
 Measurement of Inductors
 DC & AC Bridges
 Types pf Measuring Instruments
 Moving Iron
 Moving Coil
 Electrostatic
 Induction type
 Wattmeter and Power Measurements
 Electronic Measuring Instruments
 Oscilloscopes
 Digital Instruments
 Measuring of non- electrical quantities
 Object

 Concept of MeasurementSystems

1. Definitions
2. Measurement System and its Elements
3. Methods of Measurement
4. Units, Dimensions and Standards
5. Classification of Instruments
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 1. Definitions

 Measurements
 The measurement of a given quantity is the result
of comparison between the quantity and a
predefined standard.
 There must be two requirements
 The standard used for measurement must be
accurately defined and commonly accepted.
 The apparatus ( Measuring device) used and the
method adopted must be provable.
2. Measuring System and its
Elements
 A measuring system exists to provide
information about the physical value of
some variable being measured.

 A measuring system consists of several

separate elements.
 The main components of measurement
system:
1. A transducing element which converts
the quantity to be measurer in an
analogous form.
2. An intermediate means to process the
analogous signals.
3. End device to present the results of the
measurement.
Measuring System Elements
 Sensor : The first element in any measuring system,
it gives an output that is a function of the measurand
(the input applied to it).
 Some examples of primary sensors are a liquid-in-
glass thermometer and a thermocouple.
 Variable conversion elements: are needed where the
output variable of a primary transducer is in an
inconvenient form and has to be converted to a more
convenient form.
 In some cases, the primary sensor and variable
conversion element are combined; this combination
is known as a transducer.
 Signal processing elements: exist to improve the
quality of the output of a measurement system in some
way.
 This element is particularly important where the
primary transducer has a low output (amplifies this
output). It can also filter out induced noise and
remove mean levels.
 Signal Transmission: The data transmission
elements are required to transmit the data
containing the information of the signal
from one system to another.
 Signal Presentation: its function is to
provide an indication or recording in a form
that can be evaluated by an unaided
3. Methods of Measurement

Modes of
measurement

Direct
comparison
mode

Indirect
comparison
mode
  Direct comparison Methods

 They are simple and inexpensive ones and enable the

measurements to be made in the shortest possible
time but it is not always possible, feasible and
practicable to use them.
 A Human being can make direct length comparison
with precision of about 0.25 mm in measuring length
so it is not possible to make very accurate
measurements.
 Ex: Measure of Length, mass and time
 Direct Methods

Direct
Methods

Deflection Comparison
Methods Methods
  Deflection methods

 They convert the energy of unknown quantity

directly into energy that deflects the moving
element of the instrument.

 The magnitude of the quantity to be measured

obtained by reading the resulting deflection.
 Ex. : measurement of current by an
analogue ammeter.
 Comparison methods

 In comparison methods, the value of

the unknown quantity is determined
by direct comparison with a standard
of the given quantity.
 They are used when a higher accuracy of
measurement is needed.
 Ex. : measurement of resistance by using bridges
 Indirect Methods

 The value of the unknown quantity is

determined by measuring the functionally
related quantity and calculating the desired quantity
rather than measuring it directly.
 Ex: the measurement of the resistance by using
OHM’s law.
 Disadvantages:
 It is an inaccurate method
 It is less sensitive
 4. Units, Dimensions and Standards

 The magnitude of measured physical quantity must

expressed in terms of a unit and a numerical multiplier,
i.e.,
 Magnitude of a physical quantity =
(Numerical ratio) × (Unit)
 The numerical ratio is the number of times the unit
occurs in any given amount of the same quantity and,
therefore, is called the number of measures or
numerical multiplier.
 UNIT

 In order to record or to compare magnitude

of quantities, some on magnitude of each
kind must be taken as basis or unit.

 The unit may also be defined as the

standard measure of each kind of physical
quantity.
 Classification of Units

Primary

Fundamental
UNITS
Derived Auxiliary
  Fundamental Units

 The fundamental units in mechanics are measures of

length, mass and time.
 Those are fundamental to most other physical
quantities besides those in mechanics, they are
called the primary fundamental units.
 Measures of certain physical quantities in the
thermal, electrical and illumination disciplines are
also represented by fundamental units and defined
as auxiliary fundamental units.
 Derived Units

 They are all the other units that expressed in

terms of the fundamental units.
 For example, the area (A) of a rectangle is
proportional to its length (l) and breadth (b), or
A = lb. The derived unit for area (A) is then the
metre square (m2).
 A derived unit is recognized by its dimensions,
which can be defined as the complete algebraic
formula for the derived unit.
 Dimensions

 They can be defined as the complete

algebraic formula for the derived unit.
 Every Quantity has a quality which
distinguishes it from all other quantities that is
called DIMENSION.
 The dimensions of the three fundamental
mechanics units ( Length, Mass, and Time)
are [L], [M], and [T].
 Standards

 A standard of measurement is a physical

representation of a unit of measurement.
 The term ‘standard’ is applied to a piece of
equipment having a known measure of physical
quantity.
 For example, the fundamental unit of mass in the SI
system is the kilogram, defined as the mass of the
cubic decimetre of water at its temperature of
maximum of 4°C.
 The unit of mass is represented by a material standard;
the mass of the International prototype kilogram,
consisting of a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder.
 This cylinder is preserved in place near Paris.
 Standards are classified according to their functions
and applications as;
 International standards (in Paris)
 Primary standards (National Standard Laboratories)
 Secondary standards (Industrial Laboratories)
 Working standards (Principal tools of a measurement
laboratory)
5. Instrument and its
Classification
 The device used for comparing the unknown
quantity with the unit of measurement or standard
quantity.
 Machine or system which is designed to maintain
functional relationship between prescribed
properties of physical variables & could include
means of communication to human observer.
 Measuring instrument may be used to monitor a
process or operation or the controlling process.
Classification of
Instruments
 Classifications of
Instruments
 The history of development of instruments
encompasses three phases of instruments;

 Mechanical Instruments

 Electrical Instruments

 Electronic Instruments
 Mechanical Instruments

 Mechanical instruments are very reliable

for static and stable conditions.

 They have moving parts that are rigid,

heavy and bulky and consequently have
a large mass.

 Mass presents inertia problems.

Micrometer

Vernier Caliper
 Vernier Height Gauge
It is used to take accurate vertical measurements of various objects.
 Advantages:
 Relatively cheaper in cost
 More durable due to rugged construction
 Simple in design and easy to use
 No external power supply required for
operation
 Reliable and accurate for measurement of stable
and time invariant quantity
 Disadvantages:
 They are unable to respond rabidly to transient
and dynamic measurements
 Largeforce required to overcome mechanicalfriction
 Incompatible when remote indication and
control needed
 Cause noise pollution
 Electrical Instruments

 They are the instruments in which the instrument

pointer deflects due to theaction of some electrical
methods.
 Theyare more rapidthan the mechanical instruments.
 An electrical system normally depends upon
a mechanical measurement as an indicating
device.
 The frequency response of these instruments is
poor( due to some inertia of the mechanical parts in it)
  Electronic Instruments

 Electronic instruments use semiconductor devices.

 They have very fast responses.
 With the use of electronic devices, a very
weak signal can be detected by using
pre-amplifiers and amplifiers.
 The only movement involved is that of electrons, so
the response time is extremely small.
 They are light compact and have a high degree of
reliability.
 Their power consumption is very low
 EX.: Communications and Space communications.
 Advantages of Electrical/Electronic Instruments

 These instruments consume less

power
 Compactin size and more reliable in
operation
 Greater flexibility.
 Good frequency and transient response
 Remote indication and recording possible
 Amplification produced greater thanthat
produced in mechanical instruments
Classifications of Electrical
 Electrical instruments may be divided into two categories,
Instruments
that are;
 Absolute instruments,
 Secondary instruments.
 Absolute instruments gives the quantity to be
measured in term of instrument constant & its deflection. It
does not need a comparison with any other standard
instrument.
 Secondary instruments
 They are the instruments in which the deflection
gives the magnitude of electrical quantity to be
measured directly.
 These instruments are required to be
calibrated by comparing with another standard
instrument before putting into use.
 These instruments are generally used in
practice.
Classifications of Secondary Instruments
 They can be classified as;
 Analog Instruments: The signals of an Analog unit
vary in a continuous fashion and can take an
infinite number of values in a given range.
 Ex.: Ammeter and voltmeters, speedometer.
 Digital Instruments: Signals varying in discrete
steps and taking on a finite number of different
values in a given range .
 They have high accuracy and highspeed of operation.
 They eliminate the human operational errors.
 They can store the result for future purposes.
 A digital multimeter is the example of a digital instrument.
Analog
Measurement Digital Measurement
Analogue instrument Digital instrument
The instrument which gives output The instrument which gives output that
that varies continuously as quantity to varies in discrete steps and only has finite
be measured is known as analogue number of values is known as digital
instrument. instrument.
The accuracy of analog instrument is
The accuracy of digital instrument is more.
less.
The analog instruments required The digital instruments required less
more power. power.
Sensitivity of analog instrument is
Sensitivity of digital instrument is less.
more.

The analog instruments are cheap. The digital instruments are expensive.

The resolution of analog instruments The resolution of digital instruments is

is less. more.
Classifications of Analogue Instruments

 Deflection Instruments
 The deflection of the instrument indicates the measurement
of the unknown quantity. The measurand quantity produces
some physical effect which deflects or produces a
mechanical displacement in the moving system of the
instrument.
 These type of instruments are suited for measurement
under dynamic condition.
 Ex.: Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC), Moving Iron
(MI)
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• Null Output Instruments
• Zero or null indication leads to determination of the
magnitude of the measurand quantity.
• These are more accurate and highly sensitive as
compared to deflection-type instruments.
• Ex.: A dc potentiometer

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Classifications of Secondary
deflecting Instruments
 Secondary instruments can be
classified into three types;
 Indicating instruments;
 Recording instruments;
 Integrating instruments.
 Indicating Instruments
 Those which indicate the
magnitude of an electrical
quantity at the time when it
is being measured.
 The indications are given
by a pointer moving over a
calibrated (pre-graduated) scale.
 Ex. : Ordinary ammeters,
voltmeters, wattmeters, frequency
meters, power factor meters,
etc.
 Recording Instruments
 Those which keep a continuous record of the
variation of the magnitude of an electrical quantity to
be observed over a definite period of time.
 In such instruments, the moving system carries an
inked pen which touches lightly a sheet of paper wrapped
over a drum moving with uniform slow motion in
a direction perpendicular to that of the direction of
the pointer. Thus, a curve is traced which
shows the variations in the magnitude of the
electrical quantity under observation over a definite
period of time.
 Ex. : Electrocardiography (ECG)
 Integrating Instruments

 Those which measure the total amount

of either quantity of electricity (ampere-hours)
or electrical energy supplied over a
period of time.
 The summation, given by such an
instrument, is the product of time and an
electrical quantity under measurement.
 Ex. : The ampere-hour meters and energy meters.
 Other Classifications of Instruments

 Manual Instruments
 The service of an operator is required.
 Ex.: measurement of temperature by a resistance
thermometer incorporating a Wheatstone bridge in its
circuit, an operator is required to indicate the
temperature being measured.
 Automatic Instruments
 No operator is required all the time.
 Ex.: measurement of temperature by mercury-in-glass
thermometer.
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 Classifications of Instruments

 Self-operated Instruments
 No outside power is required for operation.
 Ex.: Dial-indicating type instruments.

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 Power-operated Instruments
• Some external power such as electricity, compressed air,
hydraulic supply is required for operation.
• Ex.: Electromechanical instruments

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Questions?