Chapter 5

Chapter 5: Analysis and Presentation of Data

 Outline
• Data presentation and description
• Exploring, displaying and examining data
• Hypothesis testing
• Measures of association
• Report witting :
1. Presenting insights and findings;
2. Written and oral reports
 Learning objective
 Understand different ways to best summarize data
 Choose the right table/graph for the right data
 Interpret data to consider the programmatic
relevance
 Summarizing Data
• The two main ways of summarizing data-
• Tables and Charts or Graphs.
• Tables
– Simplest way to summarize data
– A table has rows and columns containing data,
– Data are presented as absolute numbers or
percentages
• Charts and graphs
– Visual representation of data
– Data are presented as absolute numbers or
percentages
 Basic guidance for summarizing data
To make your graphics as self-explanatory as possible,
there are several things to always include:
• Every table or graph should have a title or heading
• The x- and y-axes of a graph should be labeled –
include value labels, such as a percentage sign;
include a legend
• Always cite the source of your data and put the date
of data were collection or publication
• Provide the sample size or the number of people to
which the graph is referring (N)
• Include a footnote if the graphic isn’t self-explanatory
Tables: Frequency distribution

Set of categories with numerical counts

Year Number of births

1900 61
1901 58
1902 75
 Charts and Graphs
• Charts and graphs are used to portray:
– Trends,
– Relationships, and
– Comparisons
• The most informative are simple and self-
explanatory
 Select an appropriate type of graph
• Charts and graphs
– Bar chart: comparisons, categories of data
– Line graph: display trends over time
– Pie chart: show percentages or proportional share
 Bar chart
Comparing categories
6

4
Site 1
3
Site 2
2 Site 3

0
Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4
 Bar chart
Percentage of new enrollees tested for HIV at each site, by quarter

6
% o f new enrollees tested for

5
4
3
HIV

2
Site 1
1 Site 2
0 Site 3
Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4
Q1 Jan–Mar Q2 Apr–JuneMonths
Q3 July–Sept Q4 Oct–Dec

Data Source: Program records, AIDS Relief, January 2009 – December 2009.rce:
Quarterly Country Summary: Nigeria, 2008
 Line graph
Displays trends over time
Number of Clinicians Working in Each Clinic During Years 1–4*

5
Number of clinicians

4
Clinic 1
3
Clinic 2
2 Clinic 3
1

0
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4

*Includes doctors and nurses

 Line graph
Number of Clinicians Working in Each Clinic During Years 1-4*
6

5
Number of clinicians

4
Clinic 1
3
Clinic 2
2 Clinic 3

0
Year 1
Y1 1995 Y2Year
19962 Y3Year
19973 Year
Y4 4
1998

Zambia Service Provision Assessment, 2007.

*Includes doctors and nurses

 Pie chart
Contribution to the total = 100%
Percentage of All Patients Enrolled by Quarter
8%

10%

1st Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
23% 59% 4th Qtr

N=150
 Description/Interpreting data
• Adding meaning to information by making
connections and comparisons and exploring
causes and consequences
Releva Reaso Consi Condu
ct
nce of ns for der
further
findin findin other researc
g g data h
 Interpretation
1. Relevance of Finding
• Does the indicator meet the target?
• How far from the target is it?
• How does it compare (to other time periods,
other facilities)?
• Are there any extreme highs and lows in the
data?
2. Reason for Finding
3. Consider Other data
 Interpretation contd…
4. Conduct further research
• Data gap conduct further research
• Methodology depends on questions being
asked and resources available Conduc
Reaso Consi
Releva t
ns for der
nce of further
finding findin other researc
g data h
Data Exploration, Examination, and
Analysis in the Research Process

16-17
 Statistical tool for analysis
• SPSS- Proprietary tool of IBM
• PSPP- Open Source
• MATLAB- Mathematical Modeling
• Simple Excel
• Cloud based Statistical tools
Exploratory Data Analysis

This Booth Research

Services ad suggests that
the researcher’s role is to
make sense of data
displays.

Great data exploration and

analysis delivers insight
from data.

16-19
 Key Knowledge
• Use the right graph for the right data
– Tables – can display a large amount of data
– Graphs/charts – visual, easier to detect patterns
– Label the components of your graphic
• Interpreting data adds meaning by making
connections and comparisons to program
• Service data are good at tracking progress &
identifying concerns – do not show causality
 What is Research Hypothesis?
• Definitions:
1) Hypothesis is a tentative intelligent guess
postulating from the purpose of directing the
researcher towards the solution of problem.
2) It is a statement which predicts the relationship
between two or more variables.
3) It is necessary link between theory and
investigation, usually stated after an extensive
survey of the literature.
• Science Research starts from Problem but solution
starts from Hypothesis.
 Hypothesis Contd…
Formulation of Research Hypothesis:
• It is derived from the deductive logic of the
objectives under investigation.

• A one-to-one correlation might exist between

the objectives and their corresponding
hypothesis.
 Hypothesis Testing
• Hypothesis testing is the use of statistics to
determine the probability that a
given hypothesis is true.
• Is also called significance testing
• Tests a claim about a parameter using
evidence (data in a sample)
 Hypothesis Testing

• Goal: Make statement(s) regarding unknown population

parameter values based on sample data
• Elements of a hypothesis test:
– Null hypothesis - Statement regarding the value(s) of unknown
parameter(s). Typically will imply no association between
explanatory and response variables in our applications (will
always contain an equality)
– Alternative hypothesis - Statement contradictory to the null
hypothesis (will always contain an inequality)
– Test statistic - Quantity based on sample data and null
hypothesis used to test between null and alternative
hypotheses
– Rejection region - Values of the test statistic for which we
reject the null in favor of the alternative hypothesis
 Hypothesis Testing Steps

A. Null and alternative hypotheses

B. Test statistic
C. P-value and interpretation
D. Significance level (optional)
 Hypothesis can appear in your report on either:

1. Deductive form: makes positive statement about the outcome of the study.

It can be in the form of

A) directional or B) non-directional.
– Directional: stipulate (specify) the direction of the expected results.

Ex: The performance of young employees is significantly higher than those who are
experienced and old.
Ex. The security level of latest version of OS is significantly better than the older
version of OS with cheaper price

– Non- directional: Does not specify the direction of expected difference or relationship.
Ex: There is a difference in performance of employees who are young and those
who are old and experienced.
Ex. There is a significant security level difference between the latest version of OS
and older version of OS with cheaper price
 Contd..
2. Null Form (of Hypothesis): Makes a statement that states no relationship.

Ex: There is no significant difference in the performance of employees between those who
are young and old
Ex. There is no significant security level difference between the latest version of OS and the
older version of OS with cheaper price
3. Question form (of Hypothesis): Put the hypothesis in question form.

Ex: Does the change in the experience of the employees affect the performance of
employees?
Ex. Does the change in the version of OS affects the security level of OS
4. Alternative hypothesis: This signifies a statement written opposite to the null form, i.e., when the final
decision is made at a given significance level if the null hypothesis is to rejected alternative hypothesis gets
accepted, the alternative hypothesis too on equal footing along with the null hypothesis provides direction
to the research.

Ex: There is significant difference in the performance of employees between those who are
young and old
Ex. There is significant security level difference between those OS which is latest and old
 Report witting

1. Presenting insights and findings;

2. Written and oral reports
 Meaning of Research Report:

• Research report writing is the oral or

written presentation of the evidence
and the findings in such detail and
form as to be readily understood and
accessed by the reader and as to
enable him to verify the validity of
the conclusions..
 Structure of Research Report
• Generally, a research report, whether it is
called dissertation or thesis
1) The Preliminary i.e. preface pages
2) The text of the report / Main body of the
report
3) The Reference material.
 PRELIMINARY SECTION
 Title page
 Certification
 Candidate Declaration
 Preface including Acknowledgements
 Table of Content
 List of Tables
 List of figures
 List of Abbreviation
 CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the study
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Purpose [ General Objective] and
objectives of the study
1.4 Research Questions
1.5 Definition of Terms
1.6 Significant of the study
1.7 Summary
 CHAPTER 2-LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction about Review of Literature
2.1 Body of the literature
2.1.1 General area of research
2.1.2 Underlying theory
2.1.3 Variables used from previous literature
2.2 Theoretical Framework
2.3 Hypotheses
2.4 Summary
 CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction of Research Methodology

3.1 Research Design
3.2 Variable and Measurement
3.3 Questionnaire design
3.4 Population and Sample
3.5 Scope of the study
3.6 Data analysis method
3.6.1 Goodness of data
3.6.2 Inferential analysis
3.7 Summary
 CHAPTER 4- DATA COLLECTION, DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Goodness of Measure
4.2.1 Representativeness of data
4.2.2 Validity test
4.2.3 Reliability test

4.3 Inferential analysis

4.3.1 Descriptive analysis
4.3.2 Test of difference
4.3.3 Test of relationship

4.4 Summary
 CHAPTER 5-DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

5.1 Recapitulation of major findings

5.2 Discussion
5.3 Implication
5.3.1 Theoretical Implication
5.3.2 Practical Implication
5.4 Limitation
5.5 Recommendation for future research
5.6 Conclusion
 REFERENCE MATERIAL
The reference material is generally divided as
fallows
1. Bibliography (IEEE, APA Style or ..)
2. Appendices (SPSS output & Data Stream)
3. Glossary of terms (if any)
4. Index (if any)
Question and Answer