Sajid Khan

CULTURE
Culture is often described as a vague,
multifaceted concept with fluid
boundaries, meaning different things in
various contexts. Unlike clear-cut
concepts with stable definitions,
culture is adaptable, with layers of
significance that shift depending on the
situation. It encompasses all that is
socially shared and learned within a
society, including beliefs, art, religion,
values, norms, ideas, laws, knowledge,
customs, and the capabilities acquired
by individuals as members of that
society.
.
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
 Culture is composed of numerous elements. The
major elements of culture are symbols, language,
norms, values, and artifacts.
1. Language is an essential element of culture,
playing a crucial role in shaping the way
individuals and societies think, communicate,
and interact with each other. Every culture has its
unique language, and it is often deeply ingrained
in its customs, traditions, and practices,
providing individuals with a shared sense of
identity and belonging.
• Language can also influence the way in which
individuals think and perceive the world around
them. For example, some cultures have multiple
words for a single concept or idea, while others
may have words that are difficult to translate into
other languages. These linguistic differences can
shape the way in which individuals approach and
interpret the world around them.
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
2. Norms refer to the rules or expectations that are accepted and practiced within a culture. They
guide and regulate appropriate behavior within a culture, group, or society, ensuring social cohesion
and order. Norms can vary based on factors such as age, gender, religion, occupati on, or ethnic
background, and are considered fundamental building blocks of social structure, making
them a key subject of sociological study. There are four main types of norms that help
inform individuals about behaviors considered acceptable: folkways, mores, taboos, and
laws.
a. Folkways are informal practices that are learned and shared by members of a social
group, often referred to as "customs." These behaviors are not morally significant but
are important for social acceptance. For example, in many cultures, shaking hands
when greeting someone is a folkway. While not essential for moral conduct, failing to
adhere to this custom might result in social awkwardness or a perception of
rudeness. Folkways can differ among groups, but some customs may be widely
embraced across a larger society.
b. Mores are norms that are deeply rooted in a society's sense of morality,
distinguishing between right and wrong. Violating a more is typically considered
offensive and may lead to social condemnation. In some cases, a more violation may
also be illegal, but this is not always the case. For instance, in many cultures,
infidelity is considered morally wrong (a violation of mores), yet it may not be illegal.
Conversely, acts like theft are both morally wrong and illegal, thus sanctioned by law.
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
c. Taboos refer to prohibitions against certain behaviors, activities, or
relationships that are considered unacceptable or forbidden by a culture.
Unlike laws, taboos are not written down but are passed down through
socialization. Taboos serve to maintain social order by restricting
behaviors deemed harmful or inappropriate. For example, in English
culture, it is taboo to ask someone about their salary, weight, or reasons
for not being married. Such questions are seen as intrusive and
inappropriate, even though there may be no formal rules against asking
them.
d. Laws are formal rules enacted by the state and enforced by legal
institutions. They represent the codification of certain norms, especially
those that are essential for the functioning of society. For example, child
abuse is both a taboo and a criminal offense, as it violates deeply held
moral standards and is prohibited by law. However, not all mores are
codified into law; for example, a man walking shirtless in public might be
considered offensive in some cultures (a violation of mores), but it is not
illegal
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
3. Values are deeply held assumptions that is shared by members of a particular
culture, guiding their behaviors, decisions, and judgments. These values represent
what a society collectively views as important, desirable, and morally right. They
influence how individuals within that culture interact with one another, perceive
the world, and make choices in various aspects of life, including family, work,
education, and social relationships. For example, in many Western cultures,
individualism is a core cultural value, emphasizing personal autonomy and self-
reliance. In contrast, in many Asian cultures, collectivism is a key value, where the
well-being of the group, such as family or community, takes precedence over
individual desires.
4. Artifacts are objects created by humans that reflect specific cultural moments or
practices. These items, when discovered, provide valuable insights into the
society that made or used them. Archaeologists have uncovered numerous
artifacts from ancient societies, each offering a glimpse into the lives, beliefs, and
practices of the people who created them.
• Cultural artifacts are significant because they contain vital information about the
people and the culture to which they relate or in which they were used. These
artifacts can be economic, political, religious, or social in nature, as long as they
are representative of the society from which they originated. For example, an
ancient coin might reveal information about a civilization's economy and trade,
while a religious idol might provide insights into their spiritual beliefs and rituals.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
Some of the important characteristics of culture are:
1. Culture is Learned: Culture represents the behaviors and ways of life of a
particular group. It is not innate but acquired through interactions with family,
friends, teachers, and social media. Individuals learn cultural practices, such as
dressing, behaving, and eating, from their environment.
2. Culture is Shared: Culture exists within a society and cannot be possessed by
an individual alone. Members of a society share common values, ideas, and
perceptions, which shape their collective cultural identity. This shared culture
helps individuals act in socially appropriate ways and understand each other's
actions. However, multiple cultural subgroups coexist within any society.
3. Culture is Transmitted: Culture is passed from one generation to the next
through language, imitation, and instruction. Unlike genetic traits, cultural
traits are learned and transmitted socially.
4. Culture is Dynamic: While culture is relatively stable, it evolves over time
through interactions and exchanges with other cultures. Changes in one aspect
of culture often lead to adjustments across the entire cultural system, allowing
it to adapt to new contexts.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE
5. Culture is Accumulative: Culture develops gradually, incorporating beliefs,
art, morals, and knowledge accumulated over time. It builds upon past
achievements and continues to evolve, forming a "growing whole" that
influences future advancements.
6. Culture is Based on Symbols: Symbols—such as words, objects, gestures,
or images—are crucial to culture. They represent meanings beyond
themselves and are used to communicate. For instance, a red octagonal
sign means "stop," while symbols like the Confederate flag can have varied
interpretations, such as pride or racial oppression.
7. Culture can be Ethnocentric: Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own
cultural practices and background are superior to others. It involves
viewing the world from one's own cultural perspective and considering
other cultures as inferior or incorrect. Ethnocentrists often see their
cultural norms as the standard and view different behaviors as strange or
wrong.
POPULAR CULTURE
Popular (Pop) culture refers to the set of ideas, practices, images, and phenomena that are
prevalent and widely accepted within a society at a given point in time. It encompasses various
aspects of daily life, including entertainment, fashion, music, sports, and technology, reflecting
the shared interests and preferences of the general public. Popular culture is dynamic and
evolves over time, influenced by social, political, and technological developments, making it a
key area of study within the realm of social science.
Early popular culture emerged from oral traditions and rituals that shaped communal identities,
transmitting values across generations. Industrial revolution and urbanization blended diverse
cultural practices. The 20th century saw radio and television expand the reach of popular
culture, introducing new cultural forms and global influence.
Film, television, music, dance, and literature are central to popular culture, shaping societal
conversations and cultural movements. Fashion reflects and influences societal values, acting
as a form of cultural symbolism. Sports mirror societal values and foster global unity, with major
events like the FIFA World Cup reflecting social dynamics.
ELITE CULTURE
Elite culture refers to the "high" cultural practices and institutions associated with the
educated, affluent ruling classes. It is characterized by a restricted and exclusive structure,
often found in universities, academies, libraries, and Masonic lodges—venues that symbolize
aristocratic status. While elite culture has influenced and sometimes been overshadowed by
popular culture, its significance persists. However, the exclusive hold of social elites on elite
culture has diminished as they have developed more diverse tastes, embracing cultural works
across a broad spectrum, from lowbrow to highbrow.
In Pakistan, the elite monopolizes state and society, controlling social, cultural, economic, and
political orders at the public's expense. They manipulate narratives to maintain dominance,
while the middle class, typically a force of resistance globally, is instead absorbed into the
elite structure. The village middle class, influenced by class hierarchies and colonial legacies,
is more focused on gaining status than challenging the status quo. This desire to join the elite
is evident in the obsession with civil service, judiciary, and military careers, seen as gateways
to elite membership. To challenge this monopoly, the middle class must unite politically and
mobilize the marginalized to create governments that reflect the people's true choice.
INDIVIDUALISM VS. COLLECTIVISM
Culture parameters Individualistic organizational culture Collectivist organization culture

Interference with employees' Management does not want to interfere Employees expect the organization to
privacy with the employees privacy participate in their personal affairs

The organization impact on Weak Strong

the wellbeing of employees
Employees believe that they should Employees expect the business to
Interests protection rely only on themselves, defend protect their interests
their interests

Enterprise operation Individual initiative of each member A duty and employee loyalty
of the organization sense

Career advancement Within or outside the organization Exclusively within the organization
based on competence in accordance with the experience
Leadership uses new ideas and Leadership uses traditional forms
Motivation methods, stimulates the activity of
individuals and groups
AUTHORITARIANISM VS. POWER SHARING
Culture parameters High power distance culture Low power distance culture

Subordinates frequency Low High

expressing their disagreement

Management style preference Directive Democratic

Inequality perceptions People inequality Roles inequality

Attitude towards managers Subordinates see their leaders as "other" Subordinates view their senior
people management as human beings

Guide availability Top management not available Top executives available

Relationship to law Orders are not negotiable Law takes precedence

Organization structure Multilevel, tendency towards Flat, tendency towards

centralization decentralization
Management staff size A large number of managing and The management team is smal
controlling employees
Wages differentiation Big Small enough

Lower level workers' qualifications Low High

Workers and employees status “White collars” have a higher status Workers have the same status
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX
Culture parameters Low uncertainty avoidance culture High uncertainty avoidance culture

Time attitude Staff willingness to live in the day Staff have great anxiety about the future

Preferred organization size Workers prefer a small organization Workers prefer large organizations

Middle managers age The youth Middle and elderly

Motivation to achieve the goal Sustainable Low

Attitude towards success Hope Hope for success Fear of failure
for success Fear of failure
Willingness to take risks Big Weak

Preferred career type Preference for a managerial career Preference for a specialist career over
over a career as a specialist a managerial career
Manager qualifications The manager is not a management The manager must be an expert, a
specialist specialist in the management field
Attitude towards conflicts Conflict in an organization is seen as a Organization conflicts are undesirable
natural state
Competition between workers Normal and productive phenomenon Rivalry is discouraged
Preparedness for uncertainty at High Low
work
MASCULINITY VS. FEMININITY
Culture parameters "Male" culture "Female" culture
The man and woman role A man must earn money, a . A man does not have to make a living; he
woman must raise children. can be engaged in raising children.

Domination A man should dominate in any The difference between the sexes does not
situation. affect the occupation of positions of power.

The main value Success is the only thing that Life quality
matters in life

Life and work Live for work Work to live

What is important. Money and good material Men and environment
conditions
Aspiration Always be the best Equality orientation, not trying to be better
than others
Attitude towards freedom Independence Solidarity
Feeling Respect those who have Empathy for the losers
achieved success

Making decisions Logic Intuition

LONG TERM VS. SHORT TERM ORIENTATION
RESTRAINT VS. INDULGENCE
The last dimension among Hofstede’s cultural dimensions is that of indulgence. Basically,
the dimension aims to determine how indulged and engrossed people are in their personal
life, happiness and feelings.

Restraint Indulgence
Gratification suppressed and regulated Freely satisfy basic needs and behaviour
Expects (material) reward for job done well Cannot easily be motivated with material
reward
Easily feels treated unfair Enjoys moment rather than uses time to
compare with others
Status objects important, e.g. phone, laptop, Objects need to fulfil purpose not status
watch, car