Operating System

An operating system (OS) is software that acts as an intermediary between computer hardware and the user, managing
hardware resources and providing an environment for applications to run.

Functions:
Process Management: Scheduling and managing the execution of processes.
Memory Management: Allocating and managing memory for programs.
File System Management: Organizing and managing files and directories on storage.
Device Management: Handling input and output devices, like printers, keyboards, and disks.
Security and Access Control: Protecting the system and user data from unauthorized access.

Examples:
Windows OS: Known for its user-friendly interface and compatibility with various applications.
macOS: Popular for its sleek design, multimedia capabilities, and seamless integration with Apple devices.
Linux: Known for its stability, flexibility, and open-source nature, making it popular among developers.
A computer system is a collection of hardware and software components designed to provide an effective tool for
computation.
Operating system performs the following functions:
1. Booting
Booting is a process of starting the computer operating system starts the computer to work. It checks the computer and makes it ready to work.
2. Memory Management
It is also an important function of operating system. The memory cannot be managed without operating system. Different programs and data execute in memory
at one time. if
there is no operating system, the programs may mix with each other. The system will not work properly.
3. Loading and Execution
A program is loaded in the memory before it can be executed. Operating system provides the facility to load programs in memory easily and then execute it.
4. Data security
Data is an important part of computer system. The operating system protects the data stored on the computer from illegal use, modification or deletion.
5. Disk Management
Operating system manages the disk space. It manages the stored files and folders in a proper way.
6. Process Management
CPU can perform one task at one time. if there are many tasks, operating system decides which task should get the CPU.
7. Device Controlling
operating system also controls all devices attached to computer. The hardware devices are controlled with the help of small software called device drivers..
8. Providing interface
It is used in order that user interface acts with a computer mutually. User interface controls how you input data and instruction and how information is displayed
on screen. The operating
system offers two types of the interface to the user:
1. Graphical-line interface: It interacts with of visual environment to communicate with the computer. It uses windows, icons, menus and other graphical objects
to issues commands.
2. Command-line interface:it provides an interface to communicate with the computer by typing commands.
Computer System Organization
Structure and interaction of hardware components in a computer system.
Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer, responsible for executing instructions.
Memory (RAM): Temporary storage for data and instructions actively being used by the CPU.
Storage Devices: Permanent storage like Hard Disk Drives
Input/Output Devices: Devices like keyboards, monitors, and network cards that facilitate interaction with the computer.
In a typical desktop, the OS manages the CPU to execute user commands, the RAM to temporarily hold data, and the
storage to save data permanently. When a user opens a program, the OS loads it from storage to memory for execution.
Computer System Architecture
Computer system can be divided into four components
Computer System Architecture
Computer architecture means construction/design of a computer. A computer system may be organized in different ways.
Some computer systems have single processor and others have multiprocessors. So based on the processors used in
computer systems, they are categorized into the following systems.
1. Single-processor system
2. Multiprocessor system
3. Clustered Systems:

Single-Processor Systems:
Some computers use only one processor such as microcomputers (or personal computers PCs). On a single-processor
system, there is only one CPU that performs all the activities in the computer system. Only one CPU executes
instructions, commonly found in simpler computers and older systems.
Multiprocessor Systems:
In multiprocessor system, two or more processors work together. In this system, multiple programs (more than one
program) are executed on different processors at the same time. This type of processing is known as multiprocessing.
Some operating systems have features of multiprocessing.
UNIX is an example of multiprocessing operating system. Some versions of Microsoft Windows also support
multiprocessing.
Multiprocessor system is also known as parallel system. Mostly the processors of multiprocessor system share the
common system bus, clock, memory and peripheral devices. This system is very fast in data processing.
Types of Multiprocessor Systems:
The multiprocessor systems are further divided into two types;
(i). Asymmetric multiprocessing system (ii). Symmetric multiprocessing system
(i) Asymmetric Multiprocessing System(AMS):
The multiprocessing system, in which each processor is assigned a specific task, is known as
Asymmetric Multiprocessing System. For example, one processor is dedicated for handling
user's requests, one processor is dedicated for running application program, and one processor
is dedicated for running image processing and so on. In this system, one processor works as
master processor, while other processors work as slave processors. The master processor
controls the operations of system. It also schedules and distributes tasks among the slave
processors. The slave processors perform the predefined tasks.
(ii) Symmetric Multiprocessing System(SMP):
The multiprocessing system, in which multiple processors work together on the same task, is
known as Symmetric Multiprocessing System. In this system, each processor can perform all
types of tasks. All processors are treated equally and no master-slave relationship exists
between the processors.

Clustered Systems:
Multiple computers work together, sharing resources and tasks across a network. The clustered system consists of two or
more individual systems that are coupled together. In clustered system, individual systems (or clustered computers) share
the same storage and are linked together ,via Local Area Network (LAN).
Types of Clustered Systems:
Asymmetric Clustered System
Symmetric Clustered System
Asymmetric Clustered System:
In asymmetric clustered system, one machine is in hot-standby mode while the other machine is running the application.
The hot-standby host machine does nothing. It only monitors the active server. If the server fails, the hot-standby machine
becomes the active server.
Symmetric Clustered System:
In symmetric clustered system, multiple hosts (machines) run the applications. They also monitor each other. This mode is
more efficient than asymmetric system, because it uses all the available hardware. This mode is used only if more than one
application be available to run.
Process Management
Definition: The OS is responsible for creating, scheduling, and terminating processes.
Example: In Windows, the Task Manager shows running processes, allowing users to end tasks that are unresponsive or
consuming too many resources.
Memory Management
Definition: The OS manages RAM allocation for processes and optimizes memory usage to avoid fragmentation.
Example: Virtual memory allows an OS to use part of the storage as additional RAM, letting users open more applications
than available RAM would typically support.
Storage Management:
Definition: The OS manages data storage, organizes files in directories, and provides file access control.