Lesson 1

INTRODUCTION TO
NAVIGATION
NAVIGATION AND SEAMANSHIP

GERONIMO R. ROSARIO
Assistant Professor IV
PSU BINMALEY CAMPUS
NAVIGATION VS SEAMANSHIP
• Navigation- is both an art and science
that involves the process of directing the
movements of a watercraft from one point
to another at the shortest and most
convenient time
• - is the art of getting from one place to
another safely and efficiently.

• Seamanship- the art of operating or

managing a boat, ship or vessel.
NAVIGATION
• Began with the first man – Land navigation- marine
navigation and later air navigation
• Earliest form of navigation was piloting where man
became familiar with land marks and used them as
guide, then dead reckoning where he can predict his
future positions and came celestial navigation using
heavenly bodies and lately, electronic navigation.
• Navigation was an art in the early days and took about
6,000 to 8,000 years to transform into science.
• The word navigation has its roots in the Sanskrit word
"Navgathi.” India has a maritime history dating back
to 5,000 years.
TYPES OF NAVIGATION
• Piloting
• Dead Reckoning
• Celestial Navigation
• Electronic Navigation
• Radio navigation
• Radar navigation
• Satellite navigation
TYPES OF NAVIGATION
• Piloting involves navigating in restricted
waters with frequent determination of
position relative to geographic and
hydrographic features.

• Dead reckoning (DR) determines position

by advancing a known position for courses
and distances.
TYPES OF NAVIGATION
• Celestial navigation involves reducing
celestial measurements to lines of position
using tables, spherical trigonometry, and
almanacs. It is used primarily as a backup
to satellite and other electronic systems in
the open ocean.
TYPES OF NAVIGATION
• Radio navigation uses radio waves to
determine position by either radio direction
finding systems or hyperbolic systems.
• Radar navigation uses radar to determine
the distance from or bearing of objects
whose position is known. This process is
separate from radar’s use as a collision
avoidance system.
• Satellite navigation uses artificial earth
satellites for determination of position.
PHASES OF NAVIGATION
• Four distinct phases define the navigation process. The mariner should
choose the system mix that meets the accuracy requirements of each
phase.
• Inland Waterway Phase: Piloting in narrow canals, channels, rivers,
and estuaries.
• Harbor/Harbor Approach Phase: Navigating to a harbor entrance
and piloting in harbor approach channels.
• Coastal Phase: Navigating within 50 miles of the coast or inshore of
the 200 meter depth contour.
• Ocean Phase: Navigating outside the coastal area in the open sea.
The navigator’s position accuracy requirements, his fix interval,
and his systems requirements differ in each phase.
NAVIGATIONAL TERMS AND
CONVENTIONS
• Great Circles – a circle on the surface of the earth, the
plane of which passes through the center of the earth.
• Small Circle – a circle on the surface of the earth, the
plane of which does not pass through the center of the
earth.
Equator
• Equator – the great circle which is equidistant to the
poles. The plane is perpendicular to the surface of the
earth’s axis.
• Parallel – small circle on the surface of the earth having
planes parallel to the plane of the equator and
perpendicular to the earth’s axis.
 Polar Axis

NAVIGATIONAL TERMS AND

CONVENTIONS
• Meridians – great circle on the surface of the
earth that passes through the poles.
• Prime Meridian – meridian used as the origin of
measurement of longitude, the meridian of
Greenwich
• Rhumb line- is a curve that crosses each
meridian at the same angle.
• Loxodrome – also term as rhumb line. It is
referred as the rhumb line that spirals towards the
pole.
NAVIGATIONAL TERMS AND
CONVENTIONS
• Coordinates- a position on the surface of the earth
(except at either at the poles)
• Position- is a point on the earth’s surface that can be
recognized as part of an accepted set of coordinates,
such as latitude and longitude
• Time Zones: By convention 24 zones, each 15° longitude
wide. Hence, noon at Greenwich gives midnight at 180° E.
• GMT: Greenwich Mean Time or Universal Time
Coordinated (UTC) or Zulu, and is the time in Greenwich.
Antonym: Local time. Berlin's local time = GMT + 1.
NAVIGATIONAL TERMS AND
CONVENTIONS
• Latitude – the angular distance between the
position and the equator measured northward
or southward from the equator along a
meridian and labeled as appropriate N or S.
• Longitude – the angular distance between the
position and the prime meridian measured
either eastward or westward from the prime
meridian along the area of the equator to the
meridian of the position in degrees from 0 –
180 deg and labeled E or W.
NAVIGATIONAL TERMS AND
CONVENTIONS
• Nautical Mile: One nm is one minute (') on
the vertical scale on the chart. 1' equals 1852
meters.
• Knots: Nautical miles per hour.
• True Bearing is a bearing relative to your
position, but measured against true north.
• Relative Bearing is relative to your position
but measured against the present heading of
your vessel.
NAVIGATIONAL TERMS AND
CONVENTIONS
• Course- is the intended horizontal direction of
travel expressed in angular distance from North,
usually from 000o at north to clockwise through
360o.
• Track- is the path actually followed by a vessel or
the path of proposed travels. Includes distance and
direction.
• Heading- is the direction in which a vessel is
pointed, expressed is pointed, expressed at angular
distance from North, usually from 000o at north to
clockwise through 360o. Constantly changing.
NAVIGATIONAL TERMS AND
CONVENTIONS
• Compass error- total error of the variation
and deviation
• Variation- is the error caused by irregularity
of earth’s magnetism
• Deviation- is the error caused by
magnetism of a ship.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1. Early Times
• 2. Middle Ages
• 3. Age of Discovery
• 4. Modern Exploration
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• Epic voyages
• Noah’s Ark
• Norsemen (Vikings-Danes, Swedes and Norwegians) and Polynesians (Greek for
“many islands”) consists of American Samoa, the Cook Islands, Easter Island,
French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Zealand, Niue, the Pitcairn Islands, Samoa (formerly
Western Samoa), Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, and the Wallis and Futuna Islands) were
noted as great seafaring people though little records left
• - Pacific Islanders probably the first peoples to extensively travel by boat
• - Phoenicians explored the Mediterranean, Indian Oceans
• - These travels occurred around 2000 BC, without compasses or good maps
• 7250 B.C.-The earliest recorded sea voyage dates back to about this time, when
there is evidence of sea trading between the Greek mainland and the Aegean
island of Melos.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 4000 B.C. – Egyptians develop arts of shipbuilding and ocean piloting
Pacific Islanders
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 4000-2000 B.C. The Polynesians constructed elaborate vessels complete with living
quarters for people and animals. These were used to transoceanic voyages to
colonize islands in the Pacific, including Hawaii. They are believed to have first
ventured out from the area of Borneo between 4000 and 2000 B.C. and to have
reached Hawaii in about 500 A.D. They navigated by the stars winds, tides, waves
and currents.
• 3200 BC- Egyptian and Mesopotamian (Iraq) Cultures and early trade
• 2500 B.C. - The oldest map known to man is a baked clay tablet engraved over
4500 years by an unknown Babylonian, however, people may have been drawing
maps of even the poles as early as 10,000 years before this. Apparently the
Babylonians were also producing sea charts by this time.
• 2000 BC- Minoans (Crete island of Greece) as the first true maritime power
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• The earliest expedition recorded in Egyptian hieroglyphics is that of Pharaoh
Snefru in about 3200 b.c
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• In 2750 b.c., Hannu led an expedition to explore the
Arabian Peninsula and the Red Sea. After Hannu's voyage,
Egyptian exploration declined until the first millennium
b.c. In 550 b.c., Egyptian vessels circumnavigated Africa .
They also constructed a canal between the Red Sea and
the Nile River to facilitate trade.
• Extensive migration throughout the southwestern Pacific
Ocean may have begun by 2500 B.C. This migration was
relatively easy because of the short distance between
islands. Pacific Islanders probably the first peoples to
extensively travel by boat.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• The Phoenician civilization was adept at sailing
and navigation as early as 1200 B.C. They are
known to have established trade routes
throughout the Mediterranean Sea and
northward into the Atlantic as far as Great
Britain.
• The Phoenicians circumnavigated Africa in
about 590 B.C
• During this same period of time, from 1500–
500 B.C., the boundaries of the Indian Ocean
were being explored by Arab traders.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• The Polynesians colonized the Hawaiian Islands
between A.D. 450 and 600. By the eighth
century A.D. they had colonized every
habitable island in a triangular region roughly
twice the size of the United States from Hawaii
on the north to New Zealand in the southwest
and Easter Island in the east.
• Without the ability to determine latitude and
longitude, and hence actual position on the
globe, early explorers observed a variety of
natural phenomena to help them in their travel
when they were out of site of land.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• The Polynesian explorers used Stick chart in
navigating the neighboring islands. There were three
types of stick chart used.
• 1. Mattang or Wappepe is a small, square shaped
chart which shows wave patterns around a single
island or atoll and was used for teaching purposes
only.
• 2. Rebbelib is a general wave navigational chart
mapping an entire chain, showing the relationships
between the islands and the major ocean swells.
• 3. Medo covers only a few islands and is useful for
specific voyages
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1500-500 B.C. - The premier shipbuilders, sailors, and traders of the an­cient world
were the intrepid Phoenicians, who for 1000 years from 1500 B.C. to 500 B.C.
ruled the Mediterranean after the decline of the Egyptian empire. They didn't
conquer the world with swords but with manufactured goods and commerce. A
great deal more would have been known of them if the Romans (146 B.C.) had not
burned Carthage with its 100,000 volume library. Phoeni­cia was located on a
narrow 100-mile wide strip of land where Syria and Lebanon stand today.
• 2200 BC American Indians reached the shores of America
• Babylonians (Iraq) conceived earth as mountain surrounded by waters (5,000
years ago)
• Hebrews (Palestine) modified this conception regarding earth as plane with
underground water to feed the streams and seas, which were thought to cover
only 1/7 of the earth’s surface
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 610 BC – Anaximander (Greek)- hypothesized that the earth stood alone in space
at the center of the universe. He was the first to make a map where he depicted
the earth as cylinder with a height equal to 1/3 of its diameter. Land was large
island located at the center, Europe and Asia divided by Mediterranean sea
• 515 BC- Parmenides (Greek)- first to mention that earth is a sphere
• 450 B.C. - Greeks conceived earth as flat with lands surrounded by waters. Greeks
called the Mediterranean Thalassa, and thought it was surrounded by land, and
then a big river (oceanus) around that.
• 450 BC Herodotus (Greek)- constructed a map where the Mediterranean sea is the
center of civilization where three islands ; Europe (North), Asia (east) and Libya
(South) are depicted. Three major seas bordered these three islands; Mare
Atlanticum (to the west), Mare Australis (to the south) and Mare Erythraeum (to
the southeast)
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 600 B.C. - Pytheas (Greek) of Massilia rounded Spain and
circumnavigated Britain. Massilia is now the city of Marseilles
on the southern coast of France.
• First to calculate Latitude and first to sail to Iceland
• Earliest well-recorded voyages (from Mediterranean port to
England- Scotland- Thule – Norway – Germany – Baltic-
Iceland)
• Significant voyage because he traveled without compass,
sextant, chronometers, electronic devices, he depends only on
stars, sun and wind. Siroco- desert wind and Mistral- northern
wind.
• Estimate distance by sand glass
• First to propose that tides are products of lunar effects
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 400 B.C. - Alexander the Great reached the shores of the Caspian Sea,
sailed down the Indus, and dispatched Admiral Nearchus with a fleet along
the coast of southern Asia while he marched overland with his army.
• 400 BC- Eudoxus (Greek) of Cnidus suggested that planets were attached
to concentric spheres which rotated about the earth at varying speeds.
• 300 BC- Apollonius (Greek) of Perga proposed Epicycles, the theory of the
universe, which is a geometric model used to explain the variations in
speed and direction of the apparent motion of the Moon, Sun, and planets
• 390 BC - Phillolaus, a Pythagorean philosopher proposed that there was a
central fire (Hestia) at the center of the Universe at which the earth, sun,
moon and other planets revolve around it.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 300 BC – Aristarchus (Greek) of Samos, was the first to mention
that the Earth revolves around the Sun. His proposal was given
little attention though.
• 300 B.C. navigators were using the Pole Star to determine latitude
• 240 B.C. - Eratosthenes a Greek Librarian calculated
circumference of spherical Earth about 40,000 km. (Alexandria
and Syene(Aswan))= 5,000 stadia distance. 1 stadia= 0.16 km)
Alexandria -7.2o. Actual circumference of the earth is 40,032 km.
Erastosthenes estimates was 40,000 km (very close!).The
distance is estimated through caravans of camels travelling these
areas. Eratosthenes only missed a complete­ly accurate
measurement because the Earth is not a perfect sphere.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 200 B.C.- Navigational astrolabe (for determining the position of Sun and stars)
invented by Greek. Such a device was necessary to permit navigation in the
absence of landmarks (i.e., away from shore).
• 150 A.D. - Ptolemy of Egypt's modified the early works of Apollonius and Eudoxus
and proposed the Geocentric model where the earth is at the center of the universe
and all the planetary objects including the sun and moon orbit around it.
• Produced a map of the world that endured and served mankind for over 1200
years. Some of his mistakes did not disappear from maps until the late 18th
century.
• It's major flaws were that he accepted a value of 18,000 miles for the circumference
of the Earth and, of course, that he was unaware of the existence of the Americas.
• It designated latitudes and longitudes.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 640-546 BC- Thales of Miletus one of the seven wise men of Ancient Greece,
founder of Greek geometry, astronomy and philosophy, a navigator and
cartographer. He presented the earth in gnomonic projection ( a map projection in
which points of the surface of a sphere or spheroid, such as the earth, are conceived
as projected by radials from the center to a tangent plane).
• 200 BC -Hipparcus - originated the stereographic projection (a perspective,
conformal, azimuthal map projection in which points on the surface of a sphere or
spheroid, such as the earth, are conceived as projected by radial lines from any
point on the surface to a plane tangent to that point opposite the point of projection,
widely used in polar projections) and orthographic projection (a perspective
azimuthal projection in which the projecting lines, emanating from a point at infinity,
are perpendicular to a tangent plane, used mainly for celestial navigation )
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• Middle Ages (150 AD to late 1400's)
• Following the academic achievements of the Greeks and Romans, the Middle Ages
were a period of roughly 1000 years of intellectual inactivity in the West
• Practical problems related to the sea continued to be addressed during this time
and there were significant improvements in:
• a. ship design and building,
• b. navigation, and
• c. cartography (the design and making of maps).
• 673-735 A.D. - Venerable Bede, an English historian, figured out that the moon
controlled the tides.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 700-1000 A.D -The Vikings are credited with extensive voyages throughout the
North Atlantic during the time from 793–1066. These voyages were aided by a
period of global warming that reduced the hazards of drifting ice in the North
Atlantic.
• Additional important accomplishments of the Vikings include:
• a. the colonization of Iceland in 871. As many as 12,000 immigrants eventually
settled there.
• b. Erik the Red (Erik Thorvaldsson) sailed west from Iceland in 982 and discovered
Greenland.
• c. Leif Eriksson (son of Erik the Red) sailed to North America in 1002, roughly 500
years before Columbus.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 9th cent. A.D.- Chinese invent compass though Arabs claimed they were.
• 12th cent. A.D.-Normans invent ship's rudder.
• 1400's - Three-masted ship-rigged vessels (Carracks) are developed
• 1405-1433 A.D.-The Chinese (Ming dynasty) took seven peacetime voyages to show
the magnificence of the Chinese empire. The ships were far larger than anything in
Europe at the time. The largest had 9 masts, was 444 feet long and 180 feet
wide. They had transverse bulkheads, and used magnetic compasses and elabo­
rate, detailed navigation charts. They did not seek to conquer, collect treasure, or
gather scientific information. Because these voyages were so costly and did not
contribute anything to Chinese culture they were abandoned in the early 1400's
and made no lasting contribution to improving our understanding of the ocean.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• The Age of Discovery (Latest 1400's to early 1700's)
• 1416 – Portuguese explored the Canary Islands off NW
• 1418 - Prince Henry the Navigator founded a school for the study of navigation and
sent ships out to explore the world.
• One of the great navigators in the 15th century. Studied in Sangres,Portugal, the
alma mater of later legends such as Bartolomeu Dias, Vasco da Gama, Christopher
Columbus, and Ferdinand Magellan, Henry's school served as a repository for and
training ground in the knowledge of navigational science to the 15th century. He
made no voyages himself, but under his direction many important expeditions were
undertaken along the west coast of Africa.
• 1432- Portuguese discovered Azores (~24oW & 37oN in Atlantic)
• Ptolemy’s map was republished in Europe (with the WRONG circumference!)
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1488- Bartholomeu Diaz, Portuguese explorer, rounded the tip of Africa (Cape of
Good Hope)
• 1492 - Martin Behaim, a German who worked for Portugal during the great age of
discoveries, made a globe (the oldest in existence) based on the flawed maps of
Ptolemy. This globe pictured the west coast of Europe and the east coast of Asia
facing each other across the Atlantic. His globe showed a width of only 126o of
longitude separating Spain from Asia. (The distance is actually about 230o of
longitude, but of course the Americas are “in the way”.) This error shortened
distances considerably and convinced Columbus that the trip to Asia across the vast,
uncharted, western ocean could be accomplished.
• Eratosthenes (240 B.C.) had been right about the circumference, but along came
someone named Posidonius (135-50 B.C.). He revised the estimate downwards by
25%. Ptolemy, 200 years later, chose the Posidonius estimate, thus perpetuating the
error all the way into the fifteenth century.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1492- Christopher Columbus Made four voyages (1492, 1493, 1498 and 1502)
across the Atlantic intent on reaching the East Indies and reached the Bahamas,
thought it was Japan .
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1502- Amerigo Vespucci- reached South America and concluded that it was
not Asia as Columbus claimed earlier. America was later named after
Vespucci.
• 1513- Vasco Nunez de Balboa- sighted the Pacific from a mountain in
Panama.
• 1497-Genoa-born and Henry VII-backed John Cabot sails to Labrador, Nova
Scotia, and Newfoundland giving England a claim to North America.
• 1498- Vasco da Gama reached India in May 1498. His discovery opened up a
profitable trade route from Portugal to India.
• 1460–1521- Juan Ponce de León discovered Florida and the Florida Current in
1513.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1519-1521-Ferdinand Magellan's expedition circumnavigates the globe.
• Magellan, a Portuguese who sailed under the flag of Spain and circumnavigate the
globe
• Used sea charts, parchment skins, a terrestrial globe, wooden and metal theodolite
( an optical surveying instrument for accurately measuring horizontal and vertical
angles), quadrants, compasses, magnetic needles, hourglasses and time pieces, and
log.
• Used the Martin Behaim’s globe or chart of the world, Johann Schoner globe,
Leonardo da Vinci’s map of the world
• Obtained more information from Ruy Faleiro, an astronomer and cartographer whose
charts, sailing directions, nautical tables and instructions for use of the Astrolabe ( an
instrument used for determining an accurate astronomical position ashore) and cross
staff.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• Left Spain on September 20, 1519 with five ships, Trinidad, the Concepción, the San
Antonio, the Victoria, and the Santiago
• Only 18 crew ( out of the original 270 (others 288)crew) returned with only one boat
Victoria
• Juan Sebastian Elcano- completed the circumnavigation
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1512-1594- Gerardus Mercator (Gerard de Kremer), Belgian Dutch (Flemish) -
cartographer) developed his projection, which is the basis of map-making today. The
Mercator projection (a rectangular grid system showing distances north and south of
the equator and east and west of the prime meridian was available after 1599 and
permitted projection of the spherical Earth onto a flat piece of paper.)
• 1529 - Diogo Ribeiro, a Portuguese cartographer and explorer who worked most of
his life in Spain Portuguese cartographer made a map of the entire world. This was
the first map to show the huge expanse of the Pacific with India and China properly
located, and it included both the North and South Poles! In 1532 another world map
showed Antarctica almost exactly as it exists today, complete with mountain ranges.
He worked on the official maps of the Padron Real (or Padrón General)
• 1542-Portuguese ships visit Japan for the first time.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1543- Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer, proposed the heliocentric model,
where the sun is at the center of the universe and all the planets revolve around it.
This was accepted after 1400 years of Ptolemaic geocentric system.
• 1577-1580-Sir Francis Drake, with the encouragement of Queen Elizabeth I, sails
around the world capturing Spanish ships and cargoes enhancing development of
British maritime traditions.
• 1576-1610 – Forbisher and Hudson search for a Northwest Passage to the Orient.
• 1608 - Telescope invented by Lippershey of Netherlands.
• 1607-1611 Henry Hudson among many others explored North America as the major
western European nations established colo­nies and divided up the New World.
• 1643 - Torricelli of Italy invents barometer. Told mariners when big storms were
coming
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 17th century - The English took over leadership in the field of mapmaking.
• 1731-Hadley of England perfects the sextant that measures the distance between
two objects and permits determination of latitude. His invention was called
"Hadley's octant" because of the arc it measured-i.e. one eighth (45o) of a complete
circle. The name fell out of use, but Hadley's Octant lives on as the designation the
French astronomer La Caille gave in 1752 to a group of stars in the Southern
Hemisphere.
• The biggest problem facing European explorers was the lack of good navigation—no
way to determine at sea where they were (Longitude) without an accurate clock
• 1714, Great Britain offered a £20,000 (about $12 million today) prize for a clock that
would work at sea
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1735 – John Harrison, a cabinetmaker of England invents chronometer. This was the
first clock that could keep time to within a few seconds over the course of a year-long
sea voyage.
• 1728, finished his first version
• 1736, first one to be taken to sea
• 1761, H4 was awarded the prize
• H4 was definitely a breakthrough as its diameter was only 5.25 inches. It has a totally
different appearance and mechanism from its predecessors. Oil was used as
lubricants and to minimize the problems of ageing oil, Harrison used wheels and
pinions with a great number of teeth that increased the efficiency of the clock. The
results of the sea trials for H4 were amazing as it only lost 5 seconds in 2 months.
• He finally claimed his prize in 1773 after 40 tumultuous years of political intrigue,
international warfare, academic backbiting, scientific revolution, and economic
upheaval. He was a watchmaker with no formal education or apprenticeship.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1714, Great Britain offered a
£20,000 (about $12 million
today) prize for a clock that
would work at sea
• 1735 – John Harrison, a
cabinetmaker of England
invents chronometer. Completed
five versions, and claimed his
prize after 40 years.
• H1 - 1735
• H2 - 1739
• H3 - 1759
• H4 - 1761
• H5 - 1772
• .
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• Beginning of Voyaging for Science (Late 1700's to 20th century)
• 1769 - Benjamin Franklin publishes one of the earliest maps of the Gulf Stream - the
strong current system along the U.S. Atlan­tic coast.
• 1775 - Perier of France invents steamship.
• 1776-Bushnell of America invents first workable submarine.
• 1807- Development of commercial steamship.
• Early 1800's - US Congress established and funded various institutions to study the
oceans.
• 1831-1836-The voyage of the Beagle under Captain Fitzroy along the coasts of
Patagonia, Chile and Peru, during which Charles Darwin, the ship's naturalist, makes
observations providing the basis for his Theory of Evolution. Darwin was only a
naturalist aboard a mapping cruise—NOT an oceanographic expedition!. His paper, “
The Origin of Species” was published in 1859.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• In the 1800’s, John Ross and James Clark Ross found the same benthic species in
Baffin Island, Canada and in the Antarctic—they proposed that there must be a cold-
water connection at depth
1768-1779 - Captain James Cook makes his three great voyages of exploration to chart
the Pacific--the first truly scientific expeditions of the century. He is an English Royal
Navy, made 3 important voyages in the Pacific Ocean between 1768 and 1779, marked
the dawn of modern navigation.
• scientific explorations
• equipped with astronomical clock, a journey man ( an instrument used to determine longitude,
using the long and tedious lunar distance method), charts
• Determined the outline of Pacific Ocean
• Discovered New Zealand, Australia, Hawaiian Islands
• Measured surface ocean conditions
• Made first accurate maps of oceans using chronometer (to determine longitude)
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• Edward Forbes stated that there must not be any life at great depths—no sunlight,
cold, and too much pressure. This was called the azoic hypothesis
• 1851, first Trans-Atlantic cable laid for the telegraph
• 1857, T.H. Huxley described a “primordial ooze” that was supposed to be the origins
of all life, based on sediment samples from a cable dredge (preserved for several
years)—he called the organism “Bathybius” –this is in direct contradiction of Darwin’s
hypothesis of evolution.
• There was strong debate about whether there were currents at depth, or it was all
sluggish water (Physical Oceanography)
• There were also questions about whether salinity changes, and whether the bottom
sediments are related to the terrestrial environment (it was thought that the oceans
were submerged continents)
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1838-42-An American scientific expedition led by Captain Charles Wilkes, with J.D.
Dana as naturalist, makes important studies of tides and currents of the Antarctic and
the western North American coast.
• 1842- Matthew Maury, a naval officer, was appointed Superintendent of a Depot of
charts and Instruments in. His activities and information gathering revolutionized
navigation and cut weeks off transoceanic runs by U.S. clipper ships, the fastest ships
of their time. His sounding and bottom-sampling projects were used to make maps of
the Atlantic Ocean floor. In 1853 he organized the first international meteorological
conference, which led to international cooperation in collecting weather information at
sea. His popular and influential book, The Physical Geography of the Sea (1855), was
the first major oceanographic work in Eng­lish. He is called the father of
oceanography.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• (1870s) Alexander Agassiz, brought oceanography recognition as science, used
dredge to collect bottom organisms (one haul produced more specimens than the
entire Challenger voyage)
• 1871 the U. S. established the U.S. Fish Commission to assist in the regulation and
protection of fish stocks. The first U.S. research vessel, (1882) built especially for
ocean studies was the Albatross and belonged to the U.S. Fish Commission.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1872-1876 - A scientific party under Sir Wyville Thomson and financed by the Royal
society of London embarked in a ship pro­vided by the British Admiralty to investigate
"everything about the sea" aboard the CHALLENGER. They planned to study physical
and biological conditions in every ocean, recording whatever might influence the
distribution of marine organisms They took water samples and temperature
measurements, recorded currents and barometric pressures and collected bottom
samples. Fishes were caught in nets dragged behind the ship. Traveled 109,000 km
(68,000 miles) and sampled all ocean basins except the Arctic. Brought back data
that eventually filled 50 large volumes and represented a major turning point in the
development of ocean science.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• First modern deep-ocean scientific expedition
• Measured conditions of deep ocean (chemistry, temperature, biology, bottom
sediment)
• Measured depth of ocean in several hundred locations with deep ocean sounding
(cannonballs and ropes)
• 492 soundings, dredgings, trawls and water temperature profiles.
• Described 4717 new species
• Measured the depth of the Mariana Trench-- 8185 m
• first comprehensive survey of ocean salinity
• related the presence of coral reefs to alkalinity
• Disproved the Azoic Hypothesis and the idea of Bathybius
• First comprehensive survey of the bottom geology
• Developed many of the early prototypes for our modern instruments
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1888 - Baird established a research center in Woods Hole on Cape Cod, which
stimulated the later development of the Marine Biological Laboratory (1888) and the
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (1930), probably the world's premier
oceanographic research center.
• 1879- George Washington DeLong (USS Jeanette)- stuck in polar ice north of America
• 1893-1896 - A Norwegian scientist Fridtjof Nansen designed a boat named Fram that
could withstand ice , collect­ed valuable oceanographic, magnetic, and meteorological
informa­tion in the Arctic. The rest of his career was equally as dis­tinguished including
the invention of a water-sampling bottle that permits isolation of water samples from
various depths. This lays the groundwork for future Arctic research. He also tested
hypotheses about Arctic currents. Other findings;
• 3000 m deep
• Warm subsurface water (1.5oC)
• Nansen bottle
• Ekman’s principle of wind driven drift
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1895-Marconi of Italy invents wireless telegraph.
• 1895 -Diesel of Germany invents diesel engine.

• The Age of Modern Exploration (1900's to early 21st century)

• 1909 -Admiral Robert Peary reaches the North Pole.

• 1909-Evinrude of U.S. invents outboard engine.
• 1912-Captain Ronald Amundsen reaches the South Pole.
• 1912 – Wegener proposes Continental Drift
• 1917-Mason of U.S. invents the ECHO-SOUNDER , which was used as a submarine
detector.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1925 - The German Meteor Expedition
*Mapped areas of ocean bottom using echo sounding (echo sounder)
• *Post WWII explosion in marine scientific research
*First maps of ocean floor topography (1952)
*Theory of Plate Tectonics
• *Found the Mid-Atlantic ridge
• 1952- SS United States- maiden voyage in 1952 illustrates the progress in navigation
because of modern instruments
• sextant- a double-reflecting instrument for measuring angles, primarily altitudes of
celestial bodies
• chronometer- a time piece with nearly constant rate
• gyro compass- a compass having one or more gyroscopes or the directive element
and tending to indicate true North
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1955-U.S. scientists develop 1st nuclear submarine.
• 1959- U.S. scientists develop surface ship.
• 1960’s - Deep ocean floor exploration and the beginnings of Plate Tectonic Theory.
Adaptation of the World War II echo sounder to measure ocean depths was a major
breakthrough. It permitted the rapid, accurate determina­tion of ocean depths.
• a. Systematic mapping of deep-ocean basins began in the late 1940's. Scientists at
Columbia University's Lamont Doherty Geological Observatory carried out pioneering
surveys, guided by Maurice Ewing. These surveys dramatically improved the maps of
the sea floor. (E.G. the Midocean Ridges were shown to be part of world's longest
mountain range.)
• b. Using data from these surveys, Harry H. Hess of Princeton University theorized in
1962 that movements deep in the Earth called as Seafloor Spreading
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1960—Jacques Pickard developed the Trieste, sold to the Navy
• i. went to 10,915 m (!) along with Lt. Don Walsh in the Marianas Trench (the
Challenger Deep) (Jan. 23, 1960, 5 hours descend)
• ii. Modern Deep Submergence Vehicles (DSV):
• 1. Alvin (Woods Hole) 4000 m
• 2. SeaCliff II, 6,000 m
• 3. Shinkei 6500, 6500 m
• 4. Tiburon (MBARI Remotely Operated Vehicle), 4,000 m
• 1967 - use of drill ships began. These supplied sam­ples of rocks and sediments on
the ocean bottom providing the final evidence to prove the Theory of Plate Tectonics.
• 1970's and 1980's - evolution of satellite navigation (GPS). Good to within a few
hundred feet.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1977 - Robert Ballard from WHOI discovers the thriving benthic habitats at Mid-ocean
Ridge hydrothermal vents.
• 1978 NASA launches the first oceanographic satellite, Seasat. The project developed
techniques used by generations of remotes sensing satellites.
• 1979–1981 Terry Joyce, Rob Pinkel, Lloyd Regier, F. Rowe and J. W. Young develop
techniques leading to the acoustic-doppler current profiler for measuring ocean-
surface currents from moving ships, an instrument widely used in oceanography
• 1988 NASA Earth System Science Committee headed by Francis Bretherton outlines
how all earth systems are interconnected, thus breaking down the barriers separating
traditional sciences of astrophysics, ecology, geology, meteorology, and
oceanography.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• 1991 Wally Broecker proposes that changes in the deep circulation of the ocean
modulate the ice ages, and that the deep circulation in the Atlantic could collapse,
plunging the northern hemisphere into a new ice age.
• 1992 Russ Davis and Doug Webb invent the autonomous, pop-up drifter that
continuously measures currents at depths to 2 km.
• 1992 NASA and CNES develop and launch Topex/Poseidon, a satellite that maps ocean
surface currents, waves, and tides every ten days, revolutionizing our understanding
of ocean dynamics and tides.
• 1993 Topex/Poseidon science-team members publish first accurate global maps of the
tides.
HISTORY OF NAVIGATION
• Evolution of Satellite Navigation
• Global navigation satellite system (GNSS) satellite navigation system with global
coverage may be termed
• 1974-GPS- Global Positioning System (US)
• 1976-GLONASS-GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (Russia)
• 2000-Beidou Navigation Satellite System- China
• 2005-Galileo- Europe
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXTANT
• In ancient times, the navigator who was
planning to sail out of sight of land would
simply measure the altitude of Polaris as he
left homeport and back.
• The Arabs knew all about this technique. In
early days, they used one or two fingers
width, a thumb and little finger on an
outstretched arm or an arrow held at arms
length to sight the horizon at the lower end
and Polaris at the upper.
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXTANT
• Kamal- a celestial navigation device that
determines latitude.

• Invented by the Arabs around 9th century

• Used by the Arabs in the Indian Ocean in

the 10th century.

• Adopted by the Indian and Chinese

navigators.
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXTANT
• The kamal consists of a rectangular wooden
card about 2 by 1 inches (5.1 by 2.5 cm), to
which a string with several equally spaced
knots is attached through a hole in the
middle of the card.

• Issabah- (Arabic finger) interval of the knot

(1o and 36 minutes)
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXTANT
• Astrolabe- is an angle-measuring tool
that’s name comes from the Greek word,
“to take a star.”
•
• A device used to measure the latitude by
observing the altitude and position of the
sun, stars and other heavenly bodies.

• It was possibly invented by the Greek

astronomer and mathematician, Hipparchus
(190-120 BCE).
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXTANT
• An astrolabe is a kind of
inclinometer or clinometer, also
known as a tilt meter, gradient
meter or slope gauge.
•
• It is used for measuring things
like the angle of a slope, or the
angle of elevation of an object
above the horizon
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXTANT
• Quadrant- is a very simple instrument of
medieval origin used to determine the altitude of
a heavenly body. It takes it name from its shape,
which is a quarter of a circle. The curved edge is
divided from 0 to 90 degrees.
• The quadrant received its name because it is
one-fourth of a full circle
• It was originally proposed by Ptolemy as a better
kind of astrolabe.
• For the sailor, it was first used to measure the
height of Polaris, the Pole star.
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXTANT
• Crossstaff- is a mechanical device used to
measure the angle between two objects.
• The simplest use of a Jacob's staff is to
make qualitative judgements of the height
and angle of an object relative to the user
of the staff.
• Invented by Jacob ben Makir Ibn Tibbon,
French Jewish in 14th century
• Its limitation is focusing on two sights at
the same time, making some errors.
• Good between angle 20o and 60o
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXTANT
• Backstaff-navigational instrument used to
measure the altitude of a celestial body, in
particular the sun or moon.

• Invented by John Davis, English navigator,

described in his book Seaman's Secrets in
1594.
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXTANT
• Octant-also called reflecting quadrant, is
a measuring instrument used primarily
in navigation.
• Invented by John Hadley (1682–1744), an
English mathematician, and Thomas
Godfrey (1704–1749), a glazier
in Philadelphia
• The name octant derives from the
Latin octans meaning eighth part of a
circle, because the instrument's arc is one
eighth of a circle
DEVELOPMENT OF SEXTANT
• Sextant- a doubly reflecting navigation used to
measure the angle between any two visible objects.
• Credited to John Hadley (1682–1744), an English
mathematician, and Thomas Godfrey (1704–1749),
a glazier in Philadelphia
• John Bird was the first to construct a sextant in 1759
• The frame of the sextant is in the shape of a sector
which is approximately 1⁄6 of a circle (60°), hence its
name (sextāns, -antis is the Latin word for "one
sixth")
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPASS
• The Polynesians along with their stick charts
have devised early compass using stars called
Sidereal compass.

• Another early compass used by both the

Vikings and Polynesians was the Pelorus.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPASS
• Sidereal- An instrument used as reference
system for organizing all information about winds,
currents, ocean wells and the relative positions of
islands, shoals, reefs and other seamarks.
• The diametrically opposite points of this compass
are seen as connecting in straight lines through a
central point.
• Sidereal refers to star. “Star structure” where the
stars set and rise where the equator is the
reference point.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPASS
• Pelorus is an instrument much like a mariner’s
compass, but without magnetic needles.
• It had two sight vanes and was mounted in such a
way that the bearings of objects could be observed.
• Used by the Polynesians and Vikings

• Pelorus- resembles a compass or compass repeater,

with sighting vanes or a sighting telescope attached,
but it has no directive properties

• Hannibal (203) sailed Italy using pelorus.

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPASS
• Compass- is a navigational instrument that shows
directions in a frame of reference that is stationary
relative to the surface of the earth.
• Invented by the Chinese, though some claimed the
Arabs about 2000 years ago.
• Compass was first used in China between 300 to
200 BC as Feng Shui (geomancy) during the Han
Dynasty.
• The first Compass was a simple piece of lodestone
floating on water that pointed South.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPASS
• Dry Compass- a compass mounted on a
pivot.
• The dry mariner's compass was invented in
Europe around 1300.
• Consists of needle, windrose and gimbal

• Bearing compass is a magnetic compass

mounted in such a way that it allows the
taking of bearings of objects by aligning
them with the Lubber line of the bearing
compass.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPASS
• Liquid compass is a design in which the
magnetized needle or card is damped by
fluid to protect against excessive swing or
wobble, improving readability while reducing
wear.
• A rudimentary working model of a liquid
compass was introduced by Sir Edmund
Halley in 1690
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPASS
• Gyrocompass is a type of non-magnetic
compass which is based on a fast-spinning disc and
the rotation of the Earth to find geographical
direction automatically
• Indicate true North and not affected by the ferromagnetic
materials
• The first gyroscope for scientific use was made by the
French physicist Jean Bernard Léon Foucault (1819–1868)
in 1852
• In1906 ,German inventor Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe
(1872–1931) was able to build the first practical
gyrocompass
DEVELOPMENT OF TIMEKEEPING
DEVICES
• For thousands of years, devices have been
used to measure and keep track of time.
• The current sexagesimal system of time
measurement dates to approximately 2000 BC
from the Sumerians
• The Egyptians divided the day into two 12-
hour periods, and used large obelisks to track
the movement of the sun.
• They also developed water clocks .
DEVELOPMENT OF TIMEKEEPING
DEVICES
• Obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering
monument which ends in a pyramid-like shape
or pyramidion at the top.
• Used as shadow clock by Egypt

• Sundial- is a device that tells the time of day by

the position of the sun

• Sundials use a shadow or the edge of a shadow

while others use a line or spot of light to indicate
the time.
DEVELOPMENT OF TIMEKEEPING
DEVICES
• Water Clock or clepsydra is any timepiece in
which time is measured by the regulated flow of
liquid into (inflow type) or out from (outflow type)
a vessel where the amount is then measured.
• Water clocks are one of the oldest time-measuring
instruments.
• The bowl-shaped outflow is the simplest form of a
water clock and is known to have existed
in Babylon and in Egypt around the 16th century
BCE. Other regions of the world,
including India and China
DEVELOPMENT OF TIMEKEEPING
DEVICES
• Nocturnal- an instrument used to determine
the local time based on the relative positions of
two or more stars in the night sky.
• Sometimes called a "horologium nocturnum"
(time instrument for night) or nocturlabe (in
French and occasionally used by English writers
• Sandglass- also known as hour glass, sand
timer, sand clock is used to measure time.
• Notable sailors like Ferdinand Magellan used
sandglass.
DEVELOPMENT OF TIMEKEEPING
DEVICES
• Chronometer- a clock that is precise and
accurate enough to be used as a portable time
standard; it can therefore be used to
determine longitude by means of celestial
navigation
• Christian Huygens built the first chronometer in
1660 but had some errors in determining the
longitude
• John Harrison, a Carpenter’s son developed an
accurate chronometer for a period of 40 years
and marked the naval revolution
DEVELOPMENT OF TIMEKEEPING
DEVICES
• 1714, Great Britain offered a £20,000 (about $12 million
today) prize for a clock that would work at sea
• 1735 – John Harrison, a cabinetmaker of England invents
chronometer. Completed five versions, and claimed his
prize after 40 years.
• H1 - 1735
• H1 - 1735
• H2 - 1739
• H3 - 1759
• H4 - 1761
• H5 - 1772
DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED
MEASURING DEVICES
• In the ancient times, the only way to
measure ship speed was to throw a
wood log into the water and observe
how fast it moves away from the ship.
• This approximate method of ship speed
measurement was called 'Heaving the
Log' and was used until 1500-1600s
when the 'Chip Log' method was
invented.
DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED
MEASURING DEVICES
• Dutchman’s log is used in estimating
the speed of a boat in which an object
that will float (as a piece of wood) is
thrown over the bow and calculations
are made based on the time that
elapses before the stern passes
• oldest method of determining the speed
• Invented by Bartolomeu Crescencio, a
Portuguese navigator in the 15th
century
DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED
MEASURING DEVICES
• Chip log, also called common log, ship
log, or just log, is a navigation tool use
to estimate the speed of a vessel
through water. consists of a wooden
board attached to a line.

• A navigator who needed to know the

speed of the vessel had a sailor drop the
log over the ship's stern.
DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED
MEASURING DEVICES
• Traverse board- is a memory aid
formerly used in dead reckoning
navigation to easily record the speeds
and directions sailed during a watch
• a wonderful instrument and one of the
world’s first computers
• Developed in the 1500’s
DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED
MEASURING DEVICES
• Speed and Distance Log- The device
is used to measure the speed and the
distance traveled by a ship from a set
point.
• By calculating the same, ETA of the ship
is adjusted or given to the port authority
and agent.

• Impeller log- A small propeller that

projects outside the vessel's hull below
the bottom of the boat
DEVELOPMENT OF SPEED
MEASURING DEVICES
• Pitometer logs are devices used to
measure a ship's speed relative to the
water.

• Doppler log is an instrument, used in

ships, to measure ship's relative speed
with water (in which it is travelling) by
the use of Doppler effects on
transmitted/reflected sound waves
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Chart is very indispensable for an
explorer.
• In the early days, the Polynesians were
known to devised charts to determine
the location of their neighboring islands.
• The Phoenicians used primitive map in
their explorations.
• The Greeks were also known for their
contributions in the development of
nautical chart.
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Stick chart- A tool made up of sticks
and seashells used as map of the
neighboring islands in the Polynesia.

• The Polynesians used this device in

navigating the waters of their
neighboring islands.
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Maps in Ancient Babylonia were made
by using accurate surveying techniques.
• Clay Tablet (1400 BC). Hills are shown
by overlapping semicircles, rivers by
lines, and cities by circles. The map also
is marked to show the cardinal
directions.
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• The earliest ancient Greek who is said to
have constructed a map of the world is
Anaximander of Miletus (c. 611–546 BC),
pupil of Thales.
• He believed that the earth was a
cylindrical form, like a stone pillar and
suspended in space.
• The inhabited part of his world was
circular, disk-shaped, and presumably
located on the upper surface of the
cylinder
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Hecataeus (550–475 BC) produced another
map fifty years later that he claimed was an
improved version of the map of his illustrious
predecessor.

• Anaximenes of Miletus (6th century BC), who

studied under Anaximander, rejected the
views of his teacher regarding the shape of
the earth and instead, he visualized the
earth as a rectangular form supported by
compressed air.
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• 450 BC Herodotus (Greek)- constructed
a map where the Mediterranean sea is
the center of civilization where three
islands ; Europe (North), Asia (east)
and Libya (South) are depicted. Three
major seas bordered these three
islands; Mare Atlanticum (to the west),
Mare Australis (to the south) and Mare
Erythraeum (to the southeast)
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• 240 B.C. - Eratosthenes a Greek Librarian calculated
circumference of spherical Earth about 40,000 km.
(Alexandria and Syene(Aswan))= 5,000 stadia
distance. 1 stadia= 0.16 km) Alexandria -7.2o. Actual
circumference of the earth is 40,032 km.
Erastosthenes estimates was 40,000 km (very
close!).The distance is estimated through caravans of
camels travelling these areas. Eratosthenes only
missed a completely accurate measurement because
the Earth is not a perfect sphere.
• He also produced a world map
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Claudius Ptolemy (90–168) thought that, with
the aid of astronomy and mathematics, the
earth could be mapped very accurately.
Ptolemy revolutionized the depiction of the
spherical earth on a map by using perspective
projection.
• Produced a map of the world that endured
and served mankind for over 1200
years. Some of his mistakes did not
disappear from maps until the late 18th
century.
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Cosma Indicopleustes , (6th Century)
Greek merchant, introduced the world
map which represents the earth as
quadrilateral with 20,000 km x 10,000
km.

• Pomponius Mela (43 BC), a Roman,

constructed a map dividing the earth
into five zones, of which two only
were habitable
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Muhammad al-Idrisi, 1154
• The first fusion of East and West. Al-
Idrisi's celestial view of the world is
considered one of the most advanced
ancient maps.
• The Muslim scholar and exile who lived
in Sicily worked on his cartography with
a French king. He fused Islamic and
Western notions to create his circular
world map. It is considered one of the
most advanced ancient maps.
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Thales of Miletus ( 640-546 BC), one of
the seven wise men of Ancient Greece,
founder of Greek geometry, astronomy
and philosophy, a navigator and
cartographer.
• He presented the earth in gnomonic
projection ( a map projection in which
points of the surface of a sphere or
spheroid, such as the earth, are
conceived as projected by radials from
the center to a tangent plane).
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Hipparcus (2BC) originated the
stereographic projection and
orthographic projection.
• Stereographic projection a perspective,
conformal, azimuthal map projection in
which points on the surface of a sphere
or spheroid, such as the earth, are
conceived as projected by radial lines
from any point on the surface to a plane
tangent to that point opposite the point
of projection, widely used in polar
projections.
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Orthographic projection (a perspective
azimuthal projection in which the
projecting lines, emanating from a point
at infinity, are perpendicular to a
tangent plane, used mainly for celestial
navigation )

• Hipparchus used the projection in the

2nd century BC to determine the places
of star-rise and star-set
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• 1492 - Martin Behaim, a German who
worked for Portugal during the great age
of discoveries, made a globe (the oldest
in existence) based on the flawed maps
of Ptolemy
• 1529 - Diogo Ribeiro, a Portuguese
cartographer and explorer developed the
• Padron Real- a master map kept at the
Cas de Contratacion at Seville which
contain an assembly of information from
mariners.
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Portolan Charts- (Italian premier chart)
navigational maps based on compass
directions and estimated distances
observed by the pilots at the sea. They
were first made in Italy in the 13th
century.
• “Mappa mundi” is a generic term for
medieval European world maps.
• The Hereford Mappa Mundi is notable for
being the largest medieval map still in
existence
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Leonardo Da Vinci’s World Map drawn in
1515. One of the famous map ever
made.
• A map drawn in octant projection.
• Shows the name America.
• Arctic as an ocean while Antarctica as
continent.

• Fra Mauro Map considered the greatest

memorial of medieval cartography made
between 1457 and 1459.
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Mercator Map- developed by Gerardus
Mercator (Gerhard Kremer) a brilliant
Flemish geographer who published it
1569. The theory was correct though
there are errors in his computations. It
was Edward Wright who corrected his
errors and presented all the table in
meridional parts
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch cartographer
created the Theatrum Orbis Terra in 1570,
one of the most magnificent map ever
produced representing Europe, Africa, Asia
and Australia.
• Ricci Map (also known as the Impossible
Black Tulip) was composed by Jesuit
priest, Matteo Ricci in 1602. The world
map is the oldest surviving map in
Chinese to show the Americas. The map
shows China at the center of the world
DEVELOPMENT OF CHARTS
• GIS Global Information System is a
satellite based database.

• Electronic Chart Display and Information

Systems (ECDIS). Developed in the early
1990s
• The electronic chart integrates an
electronic version of a conventional paper
chart and incorporates tide data and
navigational updates which may be sent
by satellite link or other means.
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• The underlying concept that led to
development of satellite navigation dates
to 1957 and the first launch of an artificial
satellite into orbit.
• The first system, NAVSAT, has been
replaced by the far more accurate and
widely available Global Positioning System
(GPS), which has revolutionized all
aspects of navigation
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• LORAN – Long Range Navigation is a
hyperbolic radio navigation system
developed in the US in WW II. Range is up
to 1500 miles.

• Radar is an object-detection system which

uses radio waves to determine the range,
altitude, direction, or speed of objects.
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• Fish Finder is an instrument used to locate
fish underwater by detecting reflected
pulses of sound energy, as in sonar.

• Automatic Radar Plotting Aid displays the

position of a ship and other vessels
nearby.
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• Sonar (originally an acronym for SOund
Navigation And Ranging) is a technique
that uses sound propagation (usually
underwater, as in submarine navigation)
to navigate, communicate with or detect
objects on or under the surface of the
water, such as other vessels.

• Echo Sounder -type of SONAR used to

determine the depth of water by
transmitting sound pulses into water.
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• Automatic Tracking Aid: Just like ARPA,
automatic tracking aid displays the
information on tracked targets in graphic
and numeric to generate a planned layout
for a safer and collision free course.

• Automatic Identification System, more

popularly known as AIS is a system which
helps to pinpoint the location and other
navigational statistics of ships.
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• Marine Autopilots form the third and final
support system of Consumers Marine.
Solved the problem of physically
maneuvering the ship or the boat, thus
allowing the captain far more flexibility in
his operations
• Rudder Angle Indicator provides the angle
of the rudder.
• The display is provided on bridge to
control the rate of turn and rudder angle
of the ship.
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• Just like in Airplanes, a ship is also
provided with a black box known as
Voyage data recorder.
• It is said that the accident rate of ship is
higher than that of an air plane, as the
former is bigger in size and carries several
machineries in a harsh environment,
which makes it extremely important to
have a voyage data recorder on board.
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• Global Positioning System is a space-
based navigation system that provides
location and time information in all
weather conditions, anywhere on or near
the Earth where there is an unobstructed
line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.
• GPS Receiver is a display system used to
show the ship’s location with the help of
Global positioning satellite in the earth’s
orbit
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• Navtex/weather fax machine. A device
used to provide latest weather information
updates

• Marine VHF Radios are two-way

communicators which are used to transfer
and receive messages.
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• Loud Hailer. An electronic device used to
amplify the sound of a person's voice so
that it can be heard at a distance

• Sound Reception System. A device used in

communication.
• It enables the navigating officer inside the
cabin to listen to the sound signals and
fog horn from other shi
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• Rate of Turn Indicator. A device used to indicate
how fast the ship is turning at steady rate,
normally shown as number of degree turned.

• The Long Range Tracking and Identification

(LRIT) is an international tracking and
identification system incorporated by the IMO
under its SOLAS convention to ensure a
thorough tracking system for ships across the
world
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRONIC
NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
• The Global Maritime Distress and Safety
System (GMDSS) is an international system
which uses improved terrestrial and
satellite technology and ship-board radio
systems