MEASUREMENT AND

INSTRUMENTATION
EEE 305
LECTURER: DR. KH SHAHRIYA ZAMAN
ADJUNCT FACULTY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
SOUTHEAST UNIVERSITY
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
• Repeated measurements often yield different values for the same quantity.
• The error in a measurement is the deviation of the measured value from the true
value of the quantity.
• The error in a measurement is the uncertainty in its value. This is the amount by
which the measurement can be more or less than the original value.
• It is denoted by putting a delta sign before the symbol of the quantity e.g., Δa
denotes the error in the measurement of a quantity ‘a’.
• There are three types of errors that are classified based on the source they arise
from. They are:
• Systematic Errors
• Random Errors
• Gross Errors

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Systematic Errors:
• In such errors, the measurement deviates from the actual value by a fixed
amount. Hence the prediction of these errors can be made. A faulty instrument,
changes in the physical conditions at the time of measurement, human error etc.
are the main causes of systematic errors.
• Systematic errors can be divided into:
• Environmental Errors
• Observational Errors
• Instrumental Errors

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
• Environmental Errors: This type of error arises in the
measurement due to the effect of the external conditions on the
measurement. The external condition includes temperature,
pressure, and humidity and can also include an external magnetic
field. If you measure your temperature and during the
measurement, if the electricity goes out and the room gets hot, it
will affect your body temperature, affecting the reading.
• Observational Errors: These are the errors that arise due to an
individual’s bias, lack of proper setting of the apparatus, or an
individual’s carelessness in taking observations. The
measurement errors also include wrong readings due to Parallax
errors (Parallax error is the error that occurs due to incorrect
positioning of the eyes while taking a reading ).
Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
• Instrumental Errors: These errors arise due to faulty construction and
calibration of the measuring instruments. Such errors arise due to the hysteresis
of the equipment or due to friction. The zero error is a very common type of error
in devices like Vernier callipers and screw gauges. The zero error can be either
positive or negative. Sometimes the scale readings are worn off, which can also
lead to a bad reading.
• Instrumental error takes place due to :
• Physical fault of the device
• Misuse of Apparatus
• External load on the device

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Random errors:
• The random errors are those errors, which occur irregularly and hence are
random. These can arise due to random and unpredictable fluctuations in
experimental conditions.
• Example: unpredictable fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply, mechanical
vibrations of experimental set-ups, etc, errors by the observer taking readings,
etc.
• In most cases, when the same person repeats the same observation, he/she may
likely get different readings every time.
• Random errors can be minimized by repeating the measurements and taking
average of the measurements.

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Gross errors:
• This category basically takes into account human oversight and other mistakes
while recording and readings. The most common human error in measurement
falls under this category of measurement errors.
• For example, the person taking the reading from the meter of the instrument may
read 23 as 28.
• Gross errors can be avoided by using two suitable measures:
• Proper care should be taken in reading, recording the data. Also, the calculation of
error should be done accurately.
• By increasing the number of experimenters, we can reduce the gross errors. If
each experimenter takes different readings at different points, then by taking the
average of more readings, we can reduce the gross errors.

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
How To Reduce Errors In Measurement:
Keeping an eye on the procedure and following the below listed points
can help to reduce the error:
• Make sure the formulas used for measurement are correct.
• Cross check the measured value of a quantity for improved accuracy.
• Use the instrument that has the highest precision.
• It is suggested to pilot test measuring instruments for better accuracy.
• Use multiple measures for the same construct.
• Note the measurements under controlled conditions.

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Absolute Error:
The difference between the measured value (VE) of a quantity and its actual value (VA) gives the
absolute error. It is the variation between the actual values and measured values. It is given by
Absolute error = |VA-VE|
Percent Error:
It is another way of expressing the error in measurement. This calculation allows us to gauge
how accurate a measured value is with respect to the true value. Per cent error is given by the
formula
Percentage error (%) = (VA-VE) / VA) x 100
Relative Error:
The ratio of the absolute error to the accepted measurement gives the relative error. This is also
called proportional error. The relative error is given by the formula:
Relative Error = Absolute error / Actual value (for a single reading)

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Mean Absolute Error:
If Δa1 , Δa2 , Δa3 … an are the absolute errors in measurements a1, a2, a3, … an, then:
Mean Absolute Error = [ | Δa1| + |Δa2| + |Δa3| + … + |an| ]/n

Propagation of Errors:
If the measured values are used in calculations, then the errors will also enter the results.
Let (a ± Δa) and (b ± Δb) be two quantities.
• Suppose x = (a) ± (b). Then error in x
Δx = ±(Δa+Δb) [errors add up under addition or subtraction]
• Let x = (a)×(b) or x = (a)/(b). Then the relative error in x is
Δx/x = ±[(Δa/a + Δb/b)] [relative errors add up under multiplication or division]

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: Two resistances R1=(100±5) ohm and R2=(200±10) ohm are connected in series.
Find the equivalent resistance of the series combination.

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: Two resistances R1=(100±5) ohm and R2=(200±10) ohm are connected in series.
Find the equivalent resistance of the series combination.
Solution:
Since, Equivalent resistance=R= R1+R2
Therefore,
R = (100 ± 5) + (200 ± 10) ohm
= (300 ± 15) ohm [ΔR = ΔR1 + ΔR2]

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: A capacitor of capacitance C = (2.0 ± 0.1) µF is charged to a voltage V = (20 ± 0.2)
volts. What will be the charge Q on the capacitor?

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: A capacitor of capacitance C = (2.0 ± 0.1) µF is charged to a voltage V = (20 ± 0.2)
volts. What will be the charge Q on the capacitor?
Solution:

Q = CV = 2.0×10-6 × 20 C = 4.0×10-5 Coulomb.

Proportional error in C = (ΔC/C) = (0.1/2) Charge on capacitor,
Percentage error in C = (0.1/2) × 100% = 5 % (ΔQ/Q) = (ΔC/C) + (ΔV/V)
Proportional error in V = (ΔV/V) = (0.2/20) Percentage error in Q = 5%+1%
Percentage error in V = (0.2/20)×100 = 1% = 6%
Charge = 4.0×10-5 ± 6% Coulomb
= (4.0±0.24)×10-5 Coulomb

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: The centripetal force acting on a body of mass 50 kg moving in a circle of radius 4
m with a uniform speed of 10 m/s is calculated using the equation F = mv2/r. If the
accuracies of measurement of m, v, and r are 0.5 kg, 0.02 m/s, and 0.01 m respectively,
determine the percentage error in the force.

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: The centripetal force acting on a body of mass 50 kg moving in a circle of radius 4
m with a uniform speed of 10 m/s is calculated using the equation F = mv2/r. If the
accuracies of measurement of m, v, and r are 0.5 kg, 0.02 m/s, and 0.01 m respectively,
determine the percentage error in the force.
Solution:
(ΔF/F) = (Δm/m) + 2(Δv/v) + (Δr/r) So, (ΔF/F) = 0.01 + 2(0.002) + (0.0025)
= 0.0165
(Δm/m) = (0.5/50) = 0.01
(Δv/v) = (0.02/10) = 0.002 Thus, Percentage error in force
(Δr/r) = (0.01/4) = 0.0025 = (0.0165) × 100%
= 1.65 %

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: The resistance R = V/I where V = (200 ± 5) V and I = (20 ± 0.2) A. Find the
percentage error in R.

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: The resistance R = V/I where V = (200 ± 5) V and I = (20 ± 0.2) A. Find the
percentage error in R.

Solution:
Proportional error in V = (ΔV/V) Percentage error in I = (0.2/20) ×100%
= (5/200) = 1%
Percentage error in V = (5/200)×100% So, Percentage error in R = 2.5%+1%
= 2.5% = 3.5%
Proportional error in I = (ΔI/I)
= (0.2/20)

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: The mass and the length of one side of a cube are measured and its density is
calculated. If the percentage errors in the measurement of mass and length are 1% and 2%
respectively, then what is the percentage error in the density?

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: The mass and the length of one side of a cube are measured and its density is
calculated. If the percentage errors in the measurement of mass and length are 1% and 2%
respectively, then what is the percentage error in the density?
Solution:
If the mass of the cube is m and the length of its one side is l, then its density,
d = m/l³

So, (Δd/d) = (Δm/m) + 3(Δl/l)

Thus, Percentage error in density = (1+3×2)%

= 7%

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Least Count
• It is the size of the smallest division on a scale.
Uncertainty:
• It is a measure of range of measurements from the average. This is also called deviation or error.
• Typically, uncertainty equals to the 1/2 of the least count.
Accuracy:
• It is a measure of how close a measurement is to being correct.
• For gravitational acceleration near the earth, g = 9.7 m/s2 is more accurate than g = 9.532706
m/s2.
Precision:
• It is the number of significant figures in a measurement. For gravitational acceleration near the
earth, g = 9.532706 m/s2 is more precise than g = 9.7 m/s2. Greater precision does not mean
greater accuracy.
Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: w = (4.52 ± 0.02) cm, x = ( 2.0 ± 0.2) cm, y = (3.0 ± 0.6) cm. Find z = x + y - w and
its uncertainty.

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: w = (4.52 ± 0.02) cm, x = ( 2.0 ± 0.2) cm, y = (3.0 ± 0.6) cm. Find z = x + y - w and
its uncertainty.

Solution:
z = x + y - w = 2.0 + 3.0 - 4.5 = 0.5 cm
Dz = Dx + Dy + Dw = 0.2 + 0.6 + 0.02 = 0.82 rounding to 0.8 cm
So z = (0.5 ± 0.8) cm

[Notice that we round the uncertainty to one significant figure and round the answer to
match.]

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: The radius of a circle is x = (3.0 ± 0.2) cm. Find the circumference and its
uncertainty. [C = 2x]

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: The radius of a circle is x = (3.0 ± 0.2) cm. Find the circumference and its
uncertainty. [C = 2x]

Solution:
C = 2x = 18.850 cm
DC = 2 Dx = 1.257 cm (The factors of 2 and are exact)
C = (18.8 ± 1.3) cm

[We round the uncertainty to two figures since it starts with a 1, and round the answer to
match.]

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: w = (4.52 ± 0.02) cm, x = (2.0 ± 0.2) cm. Find z = w x and its uncertainty.

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: w = (4.52 ± 0.02) cm, x = (2.0 ± 0.2) cm. Find z = w x and its uncertainty.

Solution:
z = w x = (4.52) (2.0) = 9.04 cm2

So, , which we round to 0.9 cm2

z = (9.0 ± 0.9) cm2

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: x = ( 2.0 ± 0.2) cm, y = (3.0 ± 0.6) sec. Find z = x/y.

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: x = ( 2.0 ± 0.2) cm, y = (3.0 ± 0.6) sec. Find z = x/y.

Solution:
z = 2.0/3.0 = 0.6667 cm/s.
So Dz = 0.3 (0.6667 cm/sec) = 0.2 cm/sec
z = (0.7 ± 0.2) cm/sec

[Note that in this case we round off our answer to have no more decimal places than our
uncertainty.]

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,
 ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT
Example: w = (4.52 ± 0.02) cm, x = (2.0 ± 0.2) cm, y = (3.0 ± 0.6) cm. Find z = w x +y 2

Solution:
First, we compute v = wx, to get v = (9.0 ± 0.9) cm 2.
Next, we compute

Finally, we compute z = v + (y2) = (0.9 + 3.6) cm2 = 4.5 cm2 rounding to 4 cm2
Hence z = (18 ± 4) cm2

Dr Kh Shahriya Zaman
Dept. of EEE,
Southeast University,