Design Realization

lecture 18

John Canny
10/23/03
 Last time
 Processors and networks

 Printed-circuit board design

 This time
 Sensors
 Sensors
 We’ll discuss sensors for:
 Light
 Heat
 Sound
 Distance
 Touch/pressure
 Displacement/angle
 Location/heading
 Movement
 Acceleration
 Chemicals/scents
 Light energy
 For a sensor, we’re interested in the light power
that falls on a unit area, and how well the sensor
converts that into a signal.
 A common unit is the lux which measures
apparent brightness (power multiplied by the
human eye’s sensitivity).
 1 lux of yellow light is about 0.0015 W/m 2.
 1 lux of green light (50% eff.) is 0.0029 W/m 2.
 Sunlight corresponds to about 50,000 lux
 Artificial light typically 500-1000 lux
 Light sensors
 Simplest light sensor is an LDR (Light-
Dependent Resistor).
 Optical characteristics close to human eye.
 Can be used to feed an A/D directly without
amplification (one resistor in a voltage divider).
 Common material is CdS
(Cadmium Sulphide)
 Sensitivity: dark 1 M,
10 lux 40 k,
1000 lux 400 .
 Light sensors
 Semiconductor light sensors include:
photodiodes, phototransistors, photodarlingtons.
 All of these have similar noise performance, but
phototransistors and darlingtons have better
sensitivity (more current for given light input).
 Phototransistor:
1 mA @ 1000 lux
 Photodarlingtons
up to 100x this
sensitivity.
 Light sensors – high end
 At the cutting edge of light sensor sensitivity are
Avalanche photodiodes.
 Large voltages applied to these diodes
accelerate electrons to “collide” with the
semiconductor lattice, creating more charges.
 These devices have quantum efficiencies
around 90% and extremely low noise.
 They are now made with
large collection areas and
known as LAAPDs (Large-
Area Avalanche Photo-Diode)
 Light sensors – cameras
 Two solid-state camera types: CCD and CMOS.
 CCD is the more mature technology, and has
the widest performance range.
 8 Mpixel size for cameras
 Low noise/ high efficiency for astronomy etc.
 Good sensitivity (low as 0.0003 lux, starlight)
 CCDs require several chips,
but are still cheap ($50 +)
 Most CCDs work in near infrared
and can be used for night vision
if an IR light source is used.
 Light sensors – cameras
 CMOS cameras are very compact and
inexpensive, but haven’t matched CCDs in most
performance dimensions.
 Start from $20(!)
 Custom CMOS cameras
integrate image processing
right on the camera.
 Allow special functions like
motion detection, recognition.
 Temperature/Heat sensors
 Many devices can measure temperature. Basic
heat sensors are called “thermistors” (heat-
sensitive resistors).
 Available in a very wide
range of resistances, with
positive or negative
resistance change/temp.

 1-wire device family

includes a thermometer.
 Heat vision
 Heat can be “seen” at a distance. Recall temperature =
heat/atom. At room temp each atom has average energy
6.3 x 10-21 J (lecture 10).
 Some of this energy is emitted as photons.
 A photon of energy E and frequency f satisfies:

E=hf

where h is Planck’s constant = 6.63 x 10-34 J sec

 Thermal photons have frequency ~ 1013 Hz and
wavelength ~ 30 m
 This is in the far infrared range. Sensors that respond to
those wavelengths can “see” warm objects without other
illumination.
 Thermal imagers
 Far infrared CCD cameras exist for 10 m
and above, but are much more sophisticated
(and expensive) than near-infrared CCDs.
 Generally many $1000s
 Thermal sensors
 PIR (Pyroelectric InfraRed) sensors can detect
IR heat radiation (7-20 m typical).
 They are simple, cheap and common. The
basis of security system “motion detectors”.
 Most PIR sensors contain
two or four sensors with
different viewing regions.
 They detect a change
in the difference between
the signals and give a
binary output.
 Thermal sensors
 A few component PIR sensors are available
that provide the PIR analog signals directly.
 Eltec two-element sensor, shown with matching
fresnel IR lens and mounting:
 NAIS ultra-compact
PIR sensor

 Note: PIR sensors are slow

with time constants ~ 1 sec
 Sound sensing
 Microphone types:
 Dynamic (magnetic), high-quality, size, cost
 Piezoelectric, small, cheap, fair quality
 Condenser, good quality, cheap, small
 Condenser mikes are the most common, and
range from low-end to top-end in performance.
 Sound sensing
 Most condenser mikes include a built-in
amplifier, and must be connected to a voltage
supply through a resistor.

 Almost any microphone will need further

amplification before being fed to an A/D. Many
audio preamp ICs can be used for this.
 Distance sensors
 Many kinds. At the low end, IR range sensors
(Sharp sensor example).
 An LED transmits (modulated) light, a
phototransistor detects the strength of the
modulated return signal. Good to a few ft.
 Distance sensors
 Sonar sensors. Polaroid sells several sonar
modules that are very popular in mobile robot
applications. Several pulses per second.
 Can measure range up to 30’ or more.
 Distance sensors
 Phase delay light sensors. Light beam is
modulated with radio frequency signal.
 Phase shift of return beam gives distance.
 Can give very high accuracy (mm or better).
 Used in high-end laser systems ($100s-
$1000s).
 Simple versions were available for ~ $100
several years ago. Can be custom-built for this
price.
 Touch sensors
 We have several overlay touch screens (<
$100) for laptop screens.
 Tactex makes high-performance touch
surfaces:
 They respond to multiple
finger contacts, 8000
samples/sec.
 Intended for digital music
input, and other expressive
interactions.
 Touch sensors
 Piezoelectric film creates voltages in response
to strain. It can be cut to custom shapes for
special-purpose sensors.

 Sensors include accelerometers, bend

sensors, hydrophones,…
 MSI (Measurement Specialists Inc.) sells a
variety of piezo film products.
 Displacement/Angle Sensors
 A very simple way to measure displacement or
angle is to use a potentiometer as a voltage
divider with output to an A/D converter.
 Precision potentiometers come in both linear
and multi-rotation angular types.
 Displacement/Angle Sensors
 Encoders measure relative displacement.
 A pattern of light-dark bars is attached to the
moving element.
 Light sensors observe each region.
 The number of transitions encodes the
movement in either direction.

B
A
 Location/Direction
 GPS provides location in LAT/LONG coords.
 Standard NAVSTAR systems good to ~ 5m.
 Survey grade GPS accurate to a few inches.
 Location calibration points may push
consumer accuracy toward the latter figure.
 Bluetooth GPS modules
now ~ $200.
 Cost increment for GPS
in CDMA cell phones ~ $5
 Location/Direction
 Small magnetic compasses are available,
such as the trekker ($65 kit):

 Can be tricky to use magnetic compass data

indoors, but we had good luck with it in non-
metallic robots.
 Location/Direction
 Gyroscopes maintain direction information with
fast response time.
 Small gyros were developed for model
helicopter use (~ $200). 270 Hz update.
 Movement
 For motion tracking indoors, magnetic field
systems are popular.
 Ascension Technologies “Flock of Birds”
systems are very popular.
 Wired units are moved
and all 6 degrees of
position and rotation
freedom are tracked.
 Acceleration
 Accelerometers are based either on MEMs or
piezo-electric components.
 Analog devices ADXL-series is a good
example: ADXL202
 2-axis
 2 mg resolution, 60 Hz
 6 kHz sensing range
 ~ $20 and dropping.
Scent-sing