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    Lecture 15 1

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    Rahma Faraz

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    Lecture 15 1

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    14 views21 pages

    Lecture 15 1

    Uploaded by

    Rahma Faraz

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
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    LECTURE 15

    D R K H A D I J A K A N WA L
    INSTITUTE OF CS&IT
    T H E W O M E N U N I V E R S I T Y M U LTA N
    RECAP

    Problem Solving
    GA
    Simple GA
    Examples of Mutation and
    Crossover
    Application Areas
    COURSE OUTLINE
    Advanced
    Introduction Expert Systems Topics

    Problem
    Solving Uncertainty Conclusion

    Genetic
    Algorithms Learning

    Knowledge
    Representation Planning
    & Reasoning
    LECTURE CONTENTS
     Types of Knowledge: procedural, declarative, meta, heuristic,
    structural
     Knowledge Representation Techniques
     Facts
     Object-attribute Value Triplets
     Semantic Networks
     Frames
     Logic:
     Propositional Calculus
     Predicate Calculus
    THE AI CYCLE
    LEARNING
    PERCEPTIO
    N KNOWLEDGE
    REASONING
    REPRESENTATION

    (KR)

    PLANNING

    EXECUTION
    THE DILEMMA
     We do not know how the KR and reasoning components
    are implemented in humans, even though we can see
    their manifestation in the form of intelligent behavior.
     Hence, the need for a synthetic (artificial) way to model
    the knowledge representation and reasoning capability
    of humans in computers.
    THE SIMPLE APPROACH
     Instead of focusing on how knowledge is
    acquired, we will assume for now that knowledge
    is externally injected into the system.
     For now, we focus on how to represent some
    given knowledge and then how to reason about
    that knowledge for the purpose of inference
     Knowledge acquisition and learning will be
    discussed later
    WHAT IS KNOWLEDGE

     “Understanding of a subject area”


    Durkin
     Domain: A well-focused subject
    area
    TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

     Procedural knowledge: Describes how to do things, provides a set of


    directions of how to perform certain tasks, e.g., how to drive a car
     Declarative knowledge: It describes objects, rather than processes. What is
    known about a situation. e.g. it is sunny today, cherries are red
     Meta knowledge: Knowledge about knowledge, e.g., the knowledge that blood
    pressure is more important for diagnosing a medical condition than eye color.
     Heuristic knowledge: Rule-of-thumb. e.g. if I start seeing shops, I am close to
    the market.
     Sometimes called shallow knowledge.
     Empirical as opposed to deterministic
     Structural knowledge: Describes structures and their relationships. e.g. the
    how the various parts of the car fit together to make a car, or knowledge
    structures in terms of concepts, sub concepts, and objects.
    TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
    Structural Declarativ
    Relationships Knowledg e Object
    between e Knowledg s
    Objects, e Facts
    Concepts

    Knowledg
    Heuristic
    Procedura e
    Knowledg Rules
    Rules l
    e of
    Procedure Knowledg
    e Thumb
    s
    Methods
    Meta-
    Knowledg Knowledge
    e about
    Knowledge
    TOWARDS REPRESENTATION

     There are multiple approaches that come to mind


     Pictures and symbols. This is how the earliest humans
    represented knowledge when sophisticated linguistic
    systems had not yet evolved
     Graphs and Networks
     Numbers
    REPRESENTATION: PICTURES
     What types of knowledge is best represented using pictures? e.g.
    can we represent the relationship between individuals in a family
    using a picture?
     To store procedural knowledge, we could use a series of pictures.
    e.g. how to boil an egg. A series of pictures showing the process.
     Pictures are best suited for recognition tasks
     Structural information

     How useful is such a representation for a computer?


     Not very easily translated to useful information because computers cannot
    interpret pictures automatically.
     But useful for human understanding because they allow a high level view of a
    concept to be obtained readily.
    REPRESENTATION: GRAPHS &
    NETWORKS
     Graphs and Networks allow relationships between entities to be
    incorporated, e.g., to show family relationships, now we can use a
    graph.

    Tariq Ayesha

    Amina Hassan Mona

    Ali
    GRAPHS AND NETWORKS
     May be used to represent procedural knowledge.
     e.g.How to start a car?

    Insert Key Turn Ignition Press Clutch Set Gear


    REPRESENTATION: NUMBERS

     Numbers are an integral part of the knowledge representation


    used by humans.
     Translate easily to computer representation.
     Eventually, every representation we use gets translated to
    numbers in the computers internal representation.
    KNOWLEDGE OF A FAMILY
     By a picture
     By a graph
     Description in words
     Tariq is Mona’s Father
     Ayesha is Mona’s Mother
     Mona is Tariq and Ayesha’s
    Daughter
    Tariq Ayesha

    Mona
    FORMAL KR TECHNIQUES
     Now, we will discuss some formal methods of knowledge
    representation in AI.
     Each method is suited to representing a certain type of knowledge.
     Choosing the proper representation is important because it must
    facilitate reasoning. As the saying goes ‘Knowledge is Power’.
    FACTS
     Facts are a basic block of knowledge (the atomic units of
    knowledge)
     They represent declarative knowledge.
     A Proposition is the statement of a fact. Each proposition has an
    associated truth value. It may be true or false.
     In AI, to represent a fact, we use a proposition and its associated
    truth value
     e.g.
     Proposition A: It is raining
     Proposition B: I have an umbrella
     Proposition C: I will go to school
    TYPES OF FACTS
     single-valued or multiple –valued: e.g. an individual can only
    have one eye color, but may have many cars. So the value of
    attribute cars may contain more than one value.
     uncertain facts: e.g. it will probably be sunny today. We may
    chose to store numerical certainty values with such facts.
     fuzzy facts, which are ambiguous in nature. e.g. The book is
    heavy/light. Fuzzy representation used. Use certainty factor values
    to specify value of “truth”.
    OBJECT-ATTRIBUTE-VALUE
    TRIPLETS
     A type of fact composed of three parts
     Used to assert a particular property of some object.
     e.g. Ali’s eye color is brown.
     Object: Ali
     Attribute: eye color
    Ali Eye Color
     Value: brown Brown

     e.g. Ahmed’s son is Ali Object Attribute Value


     Object: Ahmed
     Attribute: son Ahmed Color Red
     Value: Ali
    Object Attribute Value
    Thank You!

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