PN Junction

• n-type semiconductor
✔ formed by adding pentavalent impurities (like Phosphorus (P), Arsenic (As),
Antimony (Sb)) to the intrinsic semiconductor.
✔electrons are the majority carriers while holes are the minority carriers.

• p-type semiconductor
✔formed by adding trivalent impurities (like Boron (B), Gallium (G),
Indium(In), Aluminium(Al)) to the intrinsic semiconductor.
✔ holes are the majority carriers while electrons are the minority carriers.
Formation of p-n junction

• when an n-type semiconductor is joined with the p-type semiconductor, a p-n

junction is formed.
• The region where the p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined is called
p-n junction.
• It is also defined as the boundary between p-type and n-type semiconductor.
• This p-n junction forms a most popular semiconductor device known as
diode.
Why are we studying diodes/semiconductor devices?
• Diodes are the simplest form of all the semiconductor devices.
• Semiconductor devices are the fundamental building blocks of all the
electronic devices such as computers, control systems, ATM (Automated
Teller Machine), mobile phones, amplifiers, etc.
• The various applications of diodes include computers, power supplies,
television, radios and so on.
 PN Junction Diode

Symbol of PN junction Diode

What is Depletion Region ??

The depletion region is a zone that forms at the
junction between p-type and n-type
semiconductors in a p-n junction. This region is
called the depletion region because it is depleted
of free charge carriers (i.e., free electrons and
holes).

Zero biased or Unbiased PN junction Diode

 Biasing of p-n junction Diode
• The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode
is called biasing.
• External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied in any of the two methods:
forward biasing or reverse biasing.
Forward Bias And Reverse Bias
Circuit arrangement to plot VI characteristics of Diode
VI characteristics of PN junction Diode
Diode Current Equation
How to test the Diode?
Types of Diodes
 Applications of Diode

• Clipper Clampers-clips or clamps the

waveform
• Rectifiers:
⮚ Converts AC voltage into DC voltage
⮚ A HWR allows current to flow during half the AC
cycle.
⮚ A FWR allows current to flow during both half AC
cycles.
• Transistors:
⮚ Used to amplify small signals
 Numerical on Zener Diode

Ex. 1) For the circuit shown in given Figure

find : (i) the output voltage
(ii) the voltage drop across series resistance
(iii) the current through zener diode.
Solution of Ex 1
If you remove the zener diode in Fig. 1, the voltage V across the open-circuit is

Since voltage across zener diode is greater than V Z (= 50 V), the zener is in
the “on” state. It can, therefore, be represented by a battery of 50 V
 Numerical on Zener Diode

Ex.2) For the circuit given

(i),find the maximum and minimum values of zener diode current.
 Solution of Ex 2

Maximum zener current: The zener will conduct maximum current

when the input voltage is maximum i.e. 120 V. Under such conditions :
 Solution of Ex 2

Minimum Zener current: The zener will conduct minimum current when
the input voltage is minimum i.e. 80 V. Under such conditions, we have,
 Numerical on Zener Diode

Ex. 3) A 7.2 V zener is used in the circuit shown in Fig. 3 and the load
current is to vary from 12 to 100 mA. Find the value of series resistance R to
maintain a voltage of 7.2 V across the load. The input voltage is constant at
12V and the minimum zener current is 10 mA.
 Solution of Ex 3

The voltage across R is to remain constant at 12 −

7.2 = 4.8 V as the load current changes from 12 to
100 mA. The minimum zener current will occur
when the load current is maximum.

If R = 43.5 Ω is inserted in the circuit, the output voltage will remain constant over the
regulating range. As the load current IL decreases, the zener current IZ will increase to such a
value that IZ + IL = 110 mA.
Note that if load resistance is open-circuited, then IL = 0 and zener current becomes 110 mA.
 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
BJT is a semiconductor device which can be used for switching or amplification
Two Diode Analogy of Transistors
Construction of BJT
 Working of NPN Transistor

NPN Transistor : EB junction-Forward Biased CB junction-Reverse Biased

 Working of PNP Transistor

PNP Transistor : EB junction-Reverse Biased CB junction- Forward Biased

✔Active Region – the transistor operates as an amplifier and Ic = β*Ib
✔Saturation – the transistor is “Fully-ON” operating as a switch
and Ic = I(saturation)
✔Cut-off – the transistor is “Fully-OFF” operating as a switch and Ic = 0
Configurations of BJT
Common Emitter Configuration
Input Output characteristics of CE Amplifier
Numerical on Diode Current equation

Q.1) Calculate the forward bias current of a Si

diode when forward bias voltage of 0.4V is applied,
the reverse saturation current is 1.17×10 -9A and the
thermal voltage is 25.2mV.
 Solution of Q.1)
• Equation for diode current I=I0×(e(V/ηVT)-1)
• where I0 = reverse saturation current
η = ideality factor
VT = thermal voltage
V = applied voltage
• Since in this question ideality factor is not mentioned it can
be taken as one.
• I0 = 1.17 x 10-9A, VT = 0.0252V, η = 1, V = 0.4V
• Therefore, I= 1.17×10-9xe0.4/0.025 -1 = 9.156mA.
Numerical on Diode Current equation

Q.2) Calculate the reverse saturation current of a diode

if the current at 0.2V forward bias is 0.1mA at a
temperature of 25°C and the ideality factor is 1.5.
Solution of Q.2)
▪ Explanation:
▪ Equation for diode current I=I0×(e(V/ηVT ) -1)
▪ where I0 = reverse saturation current
η = ideality factor
VT = thermal voltage
V = applied voltage
▪ Here, I = 0.1mA, η = 1.5, V= 0.2V, V T = TK/11600
Therefore, VT at T= 25+273=298 is 298/11600 = 0.0256V.
Therefore, reverse saturation current
IO=0.00055mA = 5.5×10-7A.
 Zener Diode
• A special type of device designed to operate in the
reverse breakdown region.
• is always connected in reverse direction because it
is specifically designed to work in reverse
direction.
• mainly used to protect electronic circuits from
over voltage.
VI Characteristics of Zener Diode
Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

⮚ Zener maintains constant

voltage and current to load
connected parallel with it.
⮚ Input unregulated voltage is
dropped by series
resistance R
⮚ Increased current is
conducted by Zener diode
Common Base Configuration
Input Output characteristics of CB
Amplifier
Circuit Arrangement to find Input and
output characteristics
Common Emitter Configuration
Input Output characteristics of CE Amplifier
Common Collector Configuration
Input Output characteristics of CC
Amplifier
 Current Amplification Factor
In CC- Current Amplification Factor (ɤdc)
Current Amplification Factor

In CB- Current Amplification Factor (αdc):

For a transistor with common base configuration it is defined as the ratio of
static (d.c.) collector current lC to the static emitter current IE at a constant
collector voltage with respect to base.

In CE- For a transistor with common emitter configuration it is defined as the

ratio of static collector current I C to the static base current IB at a constant
collector voltage with respect to emitter.
Relation Between αdc and βdc:
Collector current in terms of leakage
current
DC Load Line
 Transistor Testing
Using DMM: some DMM’s will measure βDC or hfe.
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFET)
• FET is a semiconductor device which depends for its operation on the
control of current by an electric field.
Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)
Construction and Characteristics of JFETs

Varying reverse-bias
potentials across the p-n junction
of an n-channel JFET.
Pich-OFF
Construction and Characteristics of JFETs

n-Channel JFET characteristics with IDSS 8 mA and VP4 V.

 Configurations of JFET

Common Source Common Gate Common Drain

Shockley’s Equation ID=IDSS{1-VGS/Vp-off}2

 Operating Regions of JFET
❑Ohmic Region – When VGS = 0 the depletion layer of the channel is very
small and the JFET acts like a voltage controlled resistor.
❑Cut-off Region – This is also known as the pinch-off region when the Gate
voltage, VGS is sufficient to cause the JFET to act as an open circuit as the
channel resistance is at maximum.
❑Saturation or Active Region – The JFET becomes a good conductor and
is controlled by the Gate-Source voltage, (VGS) while the Drain-Source
voltage, (VDS) has little or no effect.
❑Breakdown Region – The voltage between the Drain and the Source,
(VDS) is high enough to causes the JFET’s resistive channel to break down
and pass uncontrolled maximum current.
Transfer characteristics of N channel JFET
Transfer characteristics of p channel JFET
Difference between BJT and FET
JFET and BJT
Important equations for DC Analysis of FET
Fixed Bias Configuration
Fixed Bias Configuration
Graphical Analysis of Fixed Bias configuration
Graphical Analysis of Fixed Bias configuration
Example 1
Graphical Approach
Self Bias Configuration
DC Analysis of Self Bias
Mathematical Approach of Self Bias
Graphical Approach

Find two points on the graph

DC Analysis of Self Bias
Reflection Spot

testmoz.com/4954046

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Metal Oxide Semiconductor Filed Effect Transistors (MOSFET)

D-MOSFET – requires the Gate-Source E-MOSFET – requires a Gate-Source

voltage, (VGS) to switch the device “OFF”. voltage, (VGS) to switch the device “ON”.
The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent The enhancement mode MOSFET is
to a “Normally Closed” switch. equivalent to a “Normally Open” switch.
Drain and Transfer Characteristics of D-MOSFET and E-MOSFET

Depletion MOSFET Enhancement MOSFET

Important Equations
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Filed Effect Transistors (MOSFET)

D-MOSFET – requires the Gate-Source E-MOSFET – requires a Gate-Source

voltage, (VGS) to switch the device “OFF”. voltage, (VGS) to switch the device “ON”.
The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent The enhancement mode MOSFET is
to a “Normally Closed” switch. equivalent to a “Normally Open” switch.
Construction of DMOSFET n channel and P channel
Working of N channel DMOSFET
Working of EMOSFET
Drain and Transfer Characteristics of D-MOSFET and E-MOSFET

Depletion MOSFET Enhancement MOSFET

Important Equations
Comparison between BJT, FET and MOSFET

TERMS BJT FET MOSFET

Device type Current controlled Voltage controlled Voltage Controlled
Current flow Bipolar Unipolar Unipolar
Not interchangeable
Terminals Interchangeable Interchangeable
Operational modes No modes Depletion mode Both Enhancement
only and Depletion
modes
Input impedance Low High Very high
Output resistance Moderate Moderate Low
Operational speed Low Moderate High
Noise High Low Low
Thermal stability Low Better High
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stM8dgcY1CA

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 Chapter 2
Biasing Circuits of BJTs and MOSFETs

- Mrs Rasika B. Naik

 Introduction – Biasing

•The analysis or design of a transistor amplifier requires knowledge of both the

dc and ac response of the system.
•The amplifier increases the strength of a weak signal by transferring the
energy from the applied DC source to the weak input ac signal.
•The analysis or design of any electronic amplifier therefore has two
components:
⮚ The dc portion and
⮚ The ac portion
•During the design stage, the choice of parameters for the required dc levels
will affect the ac response.
Biasing
⮚ Application of dc voltages to establish a fixed level of current and voltage is called Biasing.
⮚ A transistor must be properly biased in order to operate as an amplifier.
⮚ DC biasing is used to establish fixed dc values for the transistor currents and voltages called
the dc operating point or quiescent point (Q-point).

Purpose of the DC biasing circuit

• To turn the device “ON”
• To place it in operation in the region of its characteristic where the device operates most
linearly .
• Proper biasing circuit which it operate in linear region and circuit have centered Q-
point or midpoint biased
• Improper biasing cause
∙ Distortion in the output signal
∙ Produce limited or clipped at output signal
Effect of Improper Biasing
Operating Point

EMITTER COLLECTOR REGION OF

JUNCTION JUNCTION OPERATION

Forward biased Forward biased Saturation

region
Forward biased Reverse biased Active region

Reverse biased Reverse biased Cut off region

BJT ANALYSIS
DC Biasing Circuits

•Fixed-bias circuit
•Emitter bias circuit
•Voltage divider bias circuit
•Collector to base feedback circuit
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
✔ This is common emitter
(CE) configuration
✔ 1st step: Locate capacitors
and replace them with an
open circuit
✔ 2nd step: Locate 2 main
loops which;
⮚ BE loop (input loop)
⮚ CE loop(output loop)
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
1st step: Locate capacitors and replace them with an open circuit
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
2nd step: Locate 2 main loops
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
BE Loop Analysis
FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT
CE Loop Analysis

Note that RC does not affect the value of Ic

FIXED BIAS CIRCUIT

DISADVANTAGE

⮚Unstable – because it is too dependent on β and produce width

change of Q-point
⮚For improved bias stability , add emitter resistor to dc bias.
Effect of circuit values on Q point

Varying Ib
Example 1
 EMITTER BIAS CIRCUIT

🙠 An emitter resistor, RE is added

to improve stability
🙠 1st step: Locate capacitors and
replace them with an open circuit
🙠 2nd step: Locate 2 main loops
⮚ BE loop
Resistor, RE added
⮚ CE loop
 EMITTER BIAS CIRCUIT
✔ 1st step: Locate capacitors and replace them with an open circuit
 EMITTER BIAS CIRCUIT
2nd step: Locate 2 main loops.
 EMITTER BIAS CIRCUIT
✔ BE Loop Analysis
 EMITTER BIAS CIRCUIT
✔ CE Loop Analysis
Saturation Level Load Line Analysis
Example 2
Solution
Solution continued…
Improved Bias Stability

For Fixed Bias Circuit For Emitter Bias Circuit

Voltage Divider Bias or Potential Divider Bias

🙠 Two methods of analyzing a voltage

divider bias circuit are:
⮚ Exact method : can be applied
to any voltage divider circuit
⮚ Approximate method : direct
method, saves time and energy
Exact Method
Exact Method
Exact Method
Approximate Analysis
Approximate Analysis
Transistor saturation in Voltage divider Bias
The output collector emitter circuit loop of Voltage divider bias circuit is same
as that of Emitter bias, so the resulting equation for saturation current (when
VCE=0)

Load Line Analysis

Emitter Bias circuit with,

Example 1
Solution

Exact Analysis
Solution

Approximate
Analysis
Example 2
Repeat the same example with value of Beta reduced to half i.e. 70
Result comparison when beta changes
Example 3
Solution In this we can check the difference in the solution if we ignore the condition of
approximate analysis or if the condition of approximate analysis is not satisfied.
Solution
Result Comparison
Collector Feedback Bias/ DC bias with Voltage feedback

Improved level of stability

can also be obtained by
introducing feedback path
from collector to base.
DC Analysis Applying KVL to input loop,

Base Emitter Loop

DC Analysis
Applying KVL to input loop,

Collector Emitter Loop

Saturation

Load Line Analysis

Example 4
Solution
Example 5
Repeat the same example with Beta =135
Solution
Extra Numerical
Solution
Example
Solution
Example
Solution
Example

Beta = 90
Solution
Example
Solution
Example
Solution
Solution continued..
Solution continued..
Design
Problems
Example
Solution
Solution continued..
Example
Solution
Example
Beta =110
Solution
Example
Solution
Example
Solution
Example on PNP Transistor
Solution
Stability Factor
Stability Factor

S=

S’ =

S’’ =
Stability Factor for Fixed Bias
Process of Thermal Runaway
JFET and BJT
Important equations for DC Analysis of FET
Fixed Bias Configuration
Fixed Bias Configuration
Fixed Bias Configuration
Graphical Analysis of Fixed Bias configuration
Graphical Analysis of Fixed Bias configuration
Example 1
Graphical Approach
Self Bias Configuration
DC Analysis of Self Bias
Mathematical Approach of Self Bias
Graphical Approach

Find two points on the graph

DC Analysis of Self Bias
Example 2
Solution
Solution continued…
Solution continued…
Example 3
Solution
Example 4
Solution
Solution continued…
Voltage Divider Bias
Voltage Divider Bias
Voltage Divider Bias
Voltage Divider Bias
Voltage Divider Bias
Example 1
Solution
Solution
Example
Solution
Solution
Important equations for DC Analysis of MOSFET

For D-MOSFET

For E-MOSFET
Biasing of E-MOSFET
Transfer characteristics of n-channel EMOSFET
Biasing of E-MOSFET
1. Drain to Gate Bias
1. Drain to Gate Bias
1. Drain to Gate Bias
1. Drain to Gate Bias
Example
Solution
Solution
Solution
2. Potential Divider Bias
2. Potential Divider Bias
Example
Solution
Solution
Solution