Bahir Dar University

Institute of Technology

faculty of electrical and Computer engineering

POWER SYSTEM I
EEng-3133

Fundamentals of Power system

Tenaw A.
1 [email protected]
 Chapter One
Fundamentals of power
system
Outline
 Introduction
 Power system Generation
 Ac and DC transmission
 Single phase and three phase Transmission
 Complex Power
 Structure of a Power system
 Introduction to Power Transformers, CTs & PTs

2
 INTRODUCTION
 An electric power system is one of the tools of converting and
transporting energy.
 Electric energy is an essential ingredient for the industrial and
all-round development of any country.
 It is a converted form of energy, because
 it can be generated centrally in bulk and transmitted
economically over long distances.
 Further, it can be adapted easily and efficiently to domestic
and industrial applications, particularly for lighting purposes
and mechanical work
 In early days, there was a little demand for electrical energy so
that small power stations were built to supply lighting and
heating loads.
 However, the widespread use of electrical energy by modern
civilization has necessitated producing bulk electrical energy
economically and efficiently.

3
 The increased demand of electrical energy can be
met by building big power stations at favorable
places where fuel (coal or gas) or water energy is
available in abundance. This has shifted the site of
power stations to places quite away from the
consumers.
 The electrical energy produced at the power
stations has to be supplied to the consumers. There
is a large network of conductors between the power
station and the consumers. This network can be
broadly divided into two parts viz., transmission
and distribution
 The study of electric power systems is concerned
with the generation, transmission, distribution and
utilization of electric power
 An electric power system consists of three principal
4
components:
 Transmission – the bulk transfer of power by high
voltage links between main load centers
The transmission lines are the connecting links
between all the generating stations and the
distribution systems
 Distribution system – the conveyance of power to
the consumers by means of low voltage networks
A distribution system connects all the individual
loads in a given area to the transmission lines.

5
 Power system Generation
 The generation of electric power involves the conversion of
energy from a nonelectrical form (such as thermal, hydraulic,
or solar energy) to electric energy.
 Electric power is generated in the range of 11 kV to 25 kV,
which is increased by stepped up transformer to the main
transmission voltage (66 kV to 400 kV or higher)
 Sources of Power System Generation are:
 Non conventional and
 Conventional Energy sources
 Conventional energy, a source of energy that has been widely used
for many years.
 Thermal (coal, oil), nuclear and hydro generations are the
main conventional sources of electric energy.
 These methods of producing electricity are often referred to as
conventional energy sources. This means that they are the
more traditional or more commonly used sources of electrical
6 energy.
 Thermal power station

A generating station which converts heat energy of coal

combustion into electrical energy is known as a steam/thermal
power station.
 In thermal-electric power plants, electrical energy is produced by
burning coal, oil, or natural gas (Coal, oil, and natural gas are
concentrated sources of chemical energy called fossil fuels)
 The heat released by the combustion of coal produces steam in a
boiler at high pressure and temperature, which when passed
through a steam turbine gives off some of its internal energy as
mechanical energy and is condensed in a condenser to be fed into
the boiler again.
 The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts
mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical energy.
 This type of power station is suitable where coal and water are
available in abundance and a large amount of electric power is to
be generated.
7
 Heat turbine
Steam
Burn water to turns
turns
fuel make generat
turbine
steam or
Electri
cal
power
gener
ated

8
 Advantages
(i) The fuel (i.e., coal) used is quite cheap.
(ii) Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
(iii) It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of
coal. The coal can be transported to the site of the plant by rail or
road easily.
(iv) It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric power
station.
(v) The cost of generation is lesser than that of the diesel power
station.
(vi) It can be constructed in minimum time compared to Hydro and
Nuclear power stations .

 Disadvantages
(i) It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of
smoke and fumes.
(ii) High running cost as compared to hydroelectric plant.
(iii) The response is very low to supply the increasing in load
(iv) It has low efficiency ( 25 - 40 %)
9
 Hydro Electric power stations

 A hydro-electric power station utilises the potential energy of

water at a high level for the generation of electrical energy.
 In a hydro-electric power station, water head is created by
constructing a dam across a river or lake. From the dam, water is
led to a water turbine through the penstock.
 As the water falls through a certain height, its potential energy is
converted into kinetic energy and this kinetic energy is converted
to the mechanical energy by allowing the water to flow through
the hydraulic turbine runner.
 The water turbine is the prime mover which captures the energy
in the falling water and changes the hydraulic energy (i.e.,
product of head and flow of water) into mechanical energy at the
turbine shaft.
 The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
 Hydro-power now accounts for about 20% of world’s electric
generation. Output depends on rainfall and the landscape.
10
11
12
 Hydro-electric power stations are becoming very popular
because the reserves of fuels (i.e., coal and oil) are depleting
day by day. They have the added importance for flood control,
storage of water for irrigation and water for drinking purposes.
 Advantages
a) It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of electrical
energy.
b) It is quite neat and clean as no smoke or ash is produced.
c) It requires very small running charges because water is the
source of energy which is available free of cost.
d) It is comparatively simple in construction and requires less
maintenance.
e) It does not require a long starting time like a steam power
station. In fact, such plants can be put into service instantly.
f) It is robust and has a longer life.
g) Such plants serve many purposes. In addition to the
generation of electrical energy, they also help in irrigation
and controlling floods.
13
h) Although such plants require the attention of highly skilled
persons at the time of construction, yet for operation, a few
 Disadvantages
i. It involves high capital cost due to construction
of dam.
ii. There is uncertainty about the availability
of huge amount of water due to
dependence on weather conditions.
iii. Skilled and experienced hands are
required to build the plant.
iv. It requires high cost of transmission lines
as the plant is located in hilly areas which
are quite away from the consumers.

14
 Nuclear Power Station
 A generating station in which nuclear energy is converted into
electrical energy is known as a nuclear power station.
 In nuclear power station, heavy elements such as Uranium (U-235) or
Thorium (Th-232) are subjected to nuclear fission (The breaking up of
nuclei of heavy atoms into two nearly equal parts with release of huge
amount of energy is known as nuclear fission) in a special apparatus
known as a reactor.
 The heat energy thus released is utilised in raising steam at high
temperature and pressure. The steam runs the steam turbine which
converts steam energy into mechanical energy.
 The turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy.
 The most important feature of a nuclear power station is that huge
amount of electrical energy can be produced from a relatively small
amount of nuclear fuel as compared to other conventional types of
power stations.
 It has been found that complete fission of 1 kg of Uranium (U235) can
produce as much energy as can be produced by the burning of 4,500
tons of high grade coal..
15
Advantages
 The amount of fuel required is quite small.
 A nuclear power plant requires less space as compared
to any other type of the same size.
 It has low running charges as a small amount of fuel is
used for producing bulk electrical energy.
 This type of plant is very economical for producing bulk
electric power.
 It can be located near the load centers because it does
not require large quantities of water and need not be
near coal mines. Therefore, the cost of primary
distribution is reduced.
 There are large deposits of nuclear fuels available all
over the world. Therefore, such plants can ensure
continued supply of electrical energy for thousands of
years.
 It ensures reliability of operation.
16
Disadvantages
i. The fuel used is expensive and is difficult to recover.
ii. The capital cost on a nuclear plant is very high as
compared to other types of plants.
iii. The erection and commissioning of the plant requires
greater technical know-how.
iv. The fission by-products are generally radioactive and may
cause a dangerous amount of radioactive pollution.
v. Maintenance charges are high due to lack of
standardisation.
vi. Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying
loads as the reactor does not respond to the load
fluctuations efficiently.
vii. The disposal of the by-products, which are
radioactive, is a big problem. They have either to be
disposed off in a deep trench or in a sea away from
17
sea-shore
 Non conventional energy sources
 Solar Energy
 Wind Energy
 Tidal & Wave Energy
 Biogas Energy
 Geothermal energy
1) Solar Energy
 Solar energy is the main constituent of all the available
energy sources.
 Wind and hydro are driven by solar heating
 Coal, oil, natural gas are fossilized bio- fuels
 Solar energy refers the direct use of the energy contained
in sunlight (in the form heat and light)
 The heat energy is used in solar heating devices like solar cooker,
solar water heater, solar furnaces etc. The light energy is used in
solar cells
18
  At present, two technologies are being developed for
conversion of solar energy to the electrical form.
i) Solar thermal power
 Collectors with concentrators are employed to achieve
temperatures high enough ( 700'C) to operate a heat
engine at reasonable efficiency to generate electricity
 However, there are considerable engineering difficulties
in building a single tracking bowl with a diameter
exceeding 30 m to generate perhaps 200 kw.
There are three types of solar thermal power
systems
 Trough electric :- uses a long parabolic mirror to focus
sunlight on a cylindrical receiver

19
20 Fig . Trough electric
Dish /Stirling :- systems use a parabolic dish
to focus sunlight onto a receiver.

fig. Parabolic dish

21
 Power Tower :- use a field of mirror (heliostats) to focuses
intense heat on a large central receiver.

22 Fig. Power tower

 ii) Direct Conversion to Electricity
(Photovoltaic Generation)
 Solar energy is converted to the electrical form
by means of silicon wafer photoelectric cells
known as "Solar Cells".
 Their theoretical efficiency is about 25% but
the practical value is only about 15%.
 In all solar thermal schemes storage is
necessary because of the fluctuating nature of
sun's energy. This is equally true with many
other unconventional sources as well as
sources like wind.

23
24
 Advantages of solar energy
It is abundant (non –exhaustible)
It is environmentally friendly (pollution free)
It is convenient to install
 free of cost
 Dis-advantages
Energy density per unit area is very low
It is unpredictable (it is available for only a
part of the day, and cloudy and, hazy
atmospheric conditions greatly reduce the
energy received)
High initial cost

25
ii) Wind energy
 All moving objects contain kinetic energy
 The kinetic energy of the wind can be changed into other
forms of energy, either mechanical energy or electrical
energy through wind turbine generators.
 How is electricity generated by wind turbine?
 Wind blows over the angled blades and results in a
turning force.
 The force will turn the shaft gearbox and generator, which
are all connected. The gearbox increases the rotational
speed, enabling the generator to produce electricity.

26
 A single wind mill produces only a small amount of
electricity. So a large number of wind mills in a large
area are coupled together to produce more
electricity in wind energy farms.

27
 Advantages of wind energy
(i) It is clean and does not pollute the air, Wind turbines
do not emit greenhouse gases or contribute to global
warming
(ii) It is a renewable source of energy.
(iii) The recurring cost is less
Dis-advantages of wind energy
i) Wind is not available at all times, It is intermittent and
unpredictable Wind turbine generator outputs are not
controllable or predictable.
ii) It requires a large area of land.
iii) A minimum wind speed of 15 km/h is required.

28
 Wind Energy Potential in Ethiopia

29
iii) Tidal energy
 The periodic rise and fall of sea level due to gravitational
attraction of the moon causes tides.
 A dam (barrage) is constructed at a narrow opening
between the land and sea. The movement of water
during high tide and low tide can be used to rotate the
turbines of generators to produce electricity.

30
Advantages of tidal energy
 Renewable
 Abundant (estimated that it could produce 16% of worlds energy.)
 Pollution free (except during construction)
 Relatively consistent (unlike wind that is inconsistent and is
highly concentrated in certain areas depending on the
topography.)
 Water is a free resource
Disadvantages of tidal energy
 Disturbance/Destruction to marine life (effect wave climate that
effects shallow/shore plant life)
 Expensive to construct
 Reliability ( have not been around long so we do not know long-
term reliability is.)
 Recreational costs (visual impact, sport fishing, swimming, etc.)
 Cost of Maintenance Higher
 Power transmission from offshore facilities harder
 Power quality (waves fluctuation)
31
iv) Biogas energy
 Biogas is the name applied to a gaseous product
released from anaerobic decomposition of different bio-
wastes.
 In this process, organic wastes are anaerobically
fermented by microorganisms.
 The gas thus produced contains about 60% methane
and 40% CO2.
 Biogas can be produced from cow dung, leaf litter
mixtures, animal excreta particularly dairy cattle, pig
and sheep etc.

32
 v) Geothermal energy
 The deeper regions of the earth’s crust is very hot. This
heat melts rocks and forms magma. The magma moves
up and collects below at some places called Hot spots.
 The underground water in contact with hot spot gets
heated into steam at high pressure.
 By drilling holes into hot spots the steam coming out
can be used to rotate turbines of generators to produce
electricity.

33
 Geothermal Potentials in Ethiopia

Aloto Langano (Ziway) Tendaho (Afar)

34
 EEPCO Total Inter connected Generation power

35
 EEPCO Total Self contained Generation power

36
 Ac and DC transmission
A transmission system is used to deliver bulk power from
power station to load/substation and large industrial
consumers.
Where as distribution system is used to deliver power from
power stations or substation to various consumers
The conveyance of electric power from a power station to
consumers premises is known as Electric supply system.
An electric supply system consists of three principal
components
 The power station
 The transmission lines and
 The distribution systems
An electric supply systems can be broadly classified as:
i. d.c. or a.c. system
ii. Overhead or underground systems

37
 Now a days, 3-phase, 3- wire a.c. system is
universally adopted for generation and transmission
of electric power as an economical proposition.
 However, distribution of electric power is done by 3-
phase, 4-wire a.c. system
 The underground system is more expensive than
the overhead systems. Therefore, in our country,
overhead system is mostly adopted for
transmission and distribution of electric power
 The electric supply system can be transmitted
either by means of d.c. or a.c. each system has its
merits and demerits

38
Comparison b/n d.c. and a.c. system for transmission
 Transmission of electric power by high voltage d.c. system
is superior to that by high voltage a.c. system in many
respects:
i. It requires only two conductors for transmission as
compared to three for a.c. transmission
ii. No inductance, capacitance and phase displacement
problem in d.c. transmission
iii. There is no skin effect in a d.c. system. Therefore, entire
cross section of the line conductor is utilized
iv. A d.c. line has less corona loss and reduced interference
with communication ckts
v. For the same working voltage, the potential stress on the
insulation is less in case of d.c. system than that in a.c.
system. Therefore, a d.c. line requires less insulation
vi. The high voltage d.c. transmission is free from the dielectric
losses, particularly in the case of cables
vii. In d.c. transmission, there are no stability problems and
synchronizing difficulties
39
 Disadvantages:
i. Electric power can not be generated at high d.c. voltage
due to commutation problems
ii. The d.c. voltage can not be stepped up for transmission of
power at high voltage
iii. The d.c. switches and ckt breakers have their own
limitations
 A.C. Transmission: now a days, electrical energy is
almost exclusively, generated, transmitted and
distributed in the form of a.c.
 Advantages:
i. The power can be generated at high voltages
ii. The maintenance of a.c. substations is easy and cheaper
iii. The a.c. voltage can be stepped up or stepped down by
transformer with ease and efficiency. This permits to
transmit power at high voltages and distribute it at safe
potentials
40
 Dis - Advantages:
i. An a.c. line requires more copper than a d.c. line
ii. The construction of a.c. transmission line is more
complicated than a d.c. transmission line
iii. Due to skin effect in the a.c. system, the effective
resistance of the line is increased
iv. An a.c. line has capacitance. Therefore, there is a
continuous loss of power due to charging current
even when the line is open
 Distribution by a.c. system is undoubtedly superior
to that by d.c. system as in a.c. system voltage
control is easy by means of transformers
 The best way is to employ a.c system for
generation and distribution and d.c. system for
transmission

41
42
43
 Various systems of power transmission
 It has already been pointed out that for transmission
of electric power, 3- phase, 3- wire a.c. system is
universally adopted.
 However, other systems can also be used for
transmission under special circumstances
 The different possible systems of transmission are:
1. D.c. system
i. D.c. two wire system
ii. D.c. two wire mid point earthed
iii. D.c. three wire
2. Single phase a.c. system
iv. Single phase two wire
v. Single phase two wire with mid point earthed
vi. Single phase three wire
44
3. Two phase a.c. system
i. Two phase three wire
ii. Two phase four wire
4. Three phase a.c system
iii. Three phase three wire system
iv. Three phase four wire system
 The cost of conductor material is one of the most
important charges in a system
 Obviously, the best system for transmission of
power is that for which the volume of conductor
material required is minimum.
 The volume of conductor material required forms
the basis of comparison b/n different systems

45
 In comparing the relative amount of conductor
material necessary for different systems of
transmission, similar conditions will be assumed in
each case that is:
i. Same power (P watt) transmitted by each system
ii. The distance (l meters) over which power is transmitted
remains the same
iii. The line losses (W watt) are the same in each case
iv. The maximum voltage b/n any conductor and
earth (Vm) is the same in each case
1. Two wire d.c. system with one conductor earthed
 In the 2-wire d.c. systems, one is the outgoing or
positive wire and the other is the return or negative
wire.
 The load is connected b/n the two wires
 Maximum voltage b/n conductors = Vm
46
 Power to be transmitted = P
  Load current, P
I1 
Vm

 If R1 is the resistance of each line conductor, then

l - the area of cross-section

RE
R1  where a1
a1
of the conductor

ER NS ES I

D
W R A SS O W

TE
 Line losses,

IT
PO T LO W
LL E R T

M
2
 P  l

F U IN O
W 2 I12 R1 2  

E =L SF
 m  a1
V

US W D
AN
2P2 l

ST
 Area of X  sec tion, a1 

2-
WVm 2

P=
 Volume of conductor material
 2 P 2  l  required:
4P2 l 2
2a1l 2  2 
l 2
 WV m  WV m

47
  It is a usual practice to make this system as the basis
for comparison with other systems.
 Volume of material required in this system shall be
taken as2 the basic quantity
4P l 2

 i.e. 2
k
WVm

2). Two- wire d.c. system with mid point earthed

 The maximum voltage b/n any conductor and earth is
Vm so that the maximum voltage b/n conductors is 2
Vm

P
I2 
Load current,
2Vm

48
 Let a2 be the area of x-section of the conductor
R2 then, is
l
R2 
a2
 Line losses, 2
2  P  l P 2 l
W 2 I 2 R2 2    2
2V
 m 2 a 2 a V
2 m

P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a2 
2WVm 2
 Volume of conductor material required:

 P2 l  P2 l 2 K
2a2l 2  2 
l  2

 2WV m  WV m 4

 Hence, the volume of conductor material required in this

system is one – fourth of that required in a two –wire d.c.
system with one conductor earthed
49
 3). Three wired d.c. system: in a 3-wire d.c. system, there are two outers
and a middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the generator end.
 Load current, P
I3 
2Vm
 Let a be the area of X – section of each outer wire
3

2
 Line losses, 2  P  l P 2 l
W 2 I 3 R3 2    2
2V
 m 3 a 2 a V
3 m

P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a3 
2WVm 2
 Assuming the area of X-section of neutral wire to be half that of the
outer wire
 Volume of conductor material required:

 P2 l  2.5 P 2  l 2 5K
2.5a3l 2.5  2 
l  2

 2WV m  2WV m 16
5
 Hence the volume of conductor material required in this system is
of what is required for a 2-wire d.c. system with one
16thconductor
earthed
50
4). Single phase 2- wire a.c. system with one conductor
earthed
Vm
 The maximum voltage b/n conductors is Vm so that r.m.s.
value of voltage
2 b/n them is
cos 
 Assume the load power factor to be
P 2P
I
 Load current,
4  
 Vm  Vm cos 
  cos 
 2
a4
 Let be the area of x-section 2 of the conductor
2 2P  l 4P 2 l
W 2 I 4 R4 2 
 Line losses,  
V cos  a
m  4 cos 2  a V 2
4 m

4P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a4 
cos 2 WVm 2

51
  Volume of conductor material required:
 4P2 l 
2a4l 2  l
 WVm cos  
2 2

2 4P2 l 2 2K
 x 
cos 2  WVm 2 cos 2 
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required in 2
this
system is times that of 2-wire d.c. systemcos
2
with 
one conductor earthed.

5). Single phase 2 –wire system with mid point earthed

 The two wires posses equal and opposite voltages to earth
(i.e. Vm)
 The maximum voltage b/n the two wires is 2 Vm
2V
 b/nm conductors
 The r.m.s. value of voltage  2Vm is
2
cos 
52  Assuming the power factor of the load to be
 P
 Load current,
I5 
2Vm cos 

 Let a5 be the area of X-section of the conductor

 Line losses,  
2
P 2
l P l
W 2 I 5 2 R5 2   
2Vm cos   a5 cos  a5Vm
2 2

P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a5 
WVm 2 cos 2 

 Volume of conductor material required:

 P2 l 
2a5l 2  l
 WVm cos  
2 2

2 P2 l 2 K
 x 
cos 2  WVm 2 2 cos 2 
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required in this
1
2
2 cos 
system is times that of 2-wire d.c. system with
53 one conductor earthed
6). Single phase, 3- wire system
 The single phase 3- wire system is identical in principles
with 3 wire d.c. system
 The system consists of two outers and neutral wire taken
from the mid point of the phase winding

 If the load is balanced, the current pass through the

neutral wire is zero
 Assuming balanced load, maximum 2V
 m voltage
2Vm b/n
conductors = 2Vm 2
cos 
 R.m.s. value of voltage P b/n conductors
I6 
 If the power factor is2Vm cos  , then
 Load current,
54
 Let a6 be the area of X-section of each outer conductors
 The line losses, 2
2
 P  l P 2 l
W 2 I 6 R6 2   
2Vm cos   a6 a6Vm cos 
2 2

P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a6 
WVm 2 cos 2 
 Assuming the area of X- section of neutral wire to be half of
the outer wires
 Volume of conductor material required
 P2 l 
2.5a6l 2.5  l
 WVm cos  
2 2

2.5 P2 l 2 5K
 x 
cos 2  WVm 2 8 cos 2 
5
this8 cos 
2
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required in
system is times that required in a 2- wire d.c.
system with one conductor earthed

55
7). Two –phase, 3- wire system
 The third or neutral wire is taken from the junction of two –
phase windings whose voltages are in quadrature with each
other
 Obviously, each phase transmits one half of the
V total power
 m
2
 The r.m.s voltage b/n outgoing conductor and neutral
 Current in each outer conductor,
P
2 P
I7  
Vm 2Vm cos 
cos 
2
 Current in neutral conductor
 I12  I 2 2  2 I 7
 Assuming the current density to be constant, the area of X-
 2 wire will be
section of the neutral times that of
either of the outers  R7  l
2 2a7
 Resistance of neutral wire
56
 R7
 
2
 Line losses,W 2 I 2 R  2I7
7 7
2

I 7 2 R7 2  2 
2
 P  l
 
2Vm cos  
x
a7
2 2  

P2 l
W 
2a7Vm cos 
2 2 
2 2 
P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a7 
2WVm cos 
2 2
2 2  
 Volume of conductor material required

2a7 l  2a7 l a7l 2   2 

P2 l 2
 
2
 2 2
2WVm 2 cos 2 
1.457 K

57
cos 2 
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required for this
1.457
cos 2 
system is times that of 2-wire d.c. system with
one conductor earthed
8). 3- phase, 3- wire system
 This system is almost universally adopted for transmission of
electric power
 The 3- phase, 3- wire system may be star (Y) connected or
delta (∆) connected
 Figure below shows 3- phase, 3- wire star connected systems,
the neutral point (N) is earthed

Vm

2
 R.m.s. voltage per phase
P
58 
 Power transmitted per phase
3
 P
 Load current per phase, 3 2P
I8  
Vm 3Vm cos 
cos 
2
 Let a8 be the area of X- section of each conductor
 Line losses, 2
2
 2P  l 2P 2 l
W 3I 8 R8 3   
3
 mV cos   8a 3 a V
8 m
2
cos 2

2P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a8 
3WVm 2 cos 2 
 Volume of conductor material required,

 2P2 l  2P 2 l 2
3a8l 3  l 
 3WVm
2
cos 2
  WVm
2
cos 2

0.5 K

cos 2 
0.5
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required for this
cos 2 
system is times that required for 2- wire d.c.
system with one conductor earthed
59
9). 3- phase, 4- wire system

 The area of X-section of neutral wire is generally one half

that of the line conductor
 If the loads re balanced, the current through the neutral
wire is zero cos 
 Assuming balanced loads and power factor of 2 load is
2
 2P  l 2P l
W 3I 9 2 R9 3 
 Line losses,  
 3Vm cos   a9 3a9V m
2
cos 2

2P2 l
 Area of X  sec tion, a9 
3WVm 2 cos 2 
60
 As the area of X-section of neutral wire is one half that of
any line conductor
 Volume of conductor material required
 2P2 l  7 P2 l 2
3.5a9l 3.5  l 
 3WVm cos   3WVm 2 cos 2 
2 2

7 P2 l
 x
3 cos  WVm 2
2

7K

12 cos 2 
7
12 cos 2 
 Hence, the volume of conductor material required for
this system is times that required for 2- wire
d.c. system with one conductor earthed

61
 Below is given the table which shows the ratio of
cos  in
conductor material in any system compared with that
the corresponding 2- wire d.c. system. Is the
power factor in a.c. system
System Same Max. voltage
to earth
1 D.C. system

(i) Two wire system 1

(ii) Two wire mid point 0.25

earthed
(iii) 3 -wire 0.3125

2 Single phase system

2
(i) 2- wire cos 2 

0.5
(ii) 2- wire with mid point cos 2 
earthed
0.625
62 (iii) 3 -wire cos 2 
 System Same Max. voltage
to earth
3 Two phase system
1.457
cos 2 
(i) Two phase, 3 wire
system 0.5
cos 2 
(ii) Two phase, 4- wire
system
4 Three phase system
0.5
cos 2 
(i) 3- phase, 3- wire
0.583
(ii) 3-phase, 4 -wire cos 2 

63
Single phase and three phase transmission
 The major portion of all the electric power presently used in
generated, transmitted and distributed using balanced 3-
phase voltage systems
 Three phase operation is preferable to single phase b/c
 Three phase power transmission has become the standard
power distribution
 Three phase winding makes more efficient use of generator
copper & iron (three phase generators are smaller than single
phase as windings are efficiently used)
 Power flow in single phase ckts are pulsating but not in three
phase
 Three phase power transmission/distribution requires less
amount of copper or aluminum for transferring the same amount
of power as compared to single phase
 Three phase motors start more conveniently (self starting) and,
having constant torque, run more satisfactorily than single
phase motors
 The size of a three phase motor is smaller than that of a singe
64 phase motor of the same rating
 Power in single phase a.c. system
 The instantaneous power in watts absorbed by an
electrical load is the product of the instantaneous
voltage across the load in volts and the
instantaneous current into the load in amperes
 Assuming thev (t ) load
V cos voltage
max t    is

Purely resistive load

 For a purely I  resistive load, the current into the load
V
R
is in phase with the load voltage, , and the
iR (t ) I R max cos t    A
current into the resistive load is
V
where I R max  max
R

65
  The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor
is
pR (t ) v(t )iR (t ) Vmax I R max cos 2 t   
1

 Vmax I R max 1  cos  2 t   
2


VI R 1  cos  2 t    W 

 The instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor

V2 2
P VI  I R W
hasR anR average
R
R
value
Plus a double frequency term VI R cos  2 t   

1
66 Note : cos 2 x  1  cos 2 x 
2
Purely inductive loads
 For a purely inductive load, the current lags the voltage by 90
degree,
I 
V
, and
L
jX L

iL (t ) I L max cos t    90o  A

V
where I L max  max , and X L  L
XL is the inductive
reactance

 The instantaneous power absorbed by the inductor is

pL (t ) v (t )iL (t ) Vmax I L max cos t   cos t    90
0

1
 Vmax I L max cos  2 t     900 
2
VI L sin  2 t    W

1
 The instantaneous power Noteabsorbed cos  xinductor
 the
: cos x cos yby  y   cos  xis 
 ya
2
67
double-frequency sinusoid with zero average
cos  x  900  sin x
value
 Purely capacitive load
 For a purely capacitive load, the current leads the
voltageV by 90 degree,
IC  , and
 jX C 
iC (t ) I C max cos t    90o  A
V 1
where I C max  max , and X C 
XC C
is the
capacitive reactance
 The
pC (instantaneous
t ) v(t )iC (t ) Vmax Ipower absorbed by the capacitor is
C max cos t    cos t    90 
0

1
 Vmax I C max cos  2 t     900 
2
 VI C sin  2 t    W

 The instantaneous power absorbed by a capacitor is

also a double frequency sinusoid with zero average
68 value
 General RLC Load
 For a general load composed of RLC elements
under sinusoidal-steady-state excitation, the load
current
i (t ) i cos is
max t of
  the
A form

 The instantaneous power absorbed by the load is

p (t ) v(t )i (t ) Vmax I max cos t   cos t   
then
1

 Vmax I max cos      cos  2 t        
2

VI cos      VI cos    cos  2 t     VI sin    sin  2 t    W

 
p (t ) VI cos     1  cos  2 t     VI sin    sin  2 t   
Letting I cos     I R and I sin     I X gives

 
p (t ) VI R 1  cos  2 t     VI X sin  2 t   
                      p (t )    
pR ( t ) X

69 Note : cos( x  /  y ) cos x cos y  /  sin x sin y

  the instantaneous power absorbed by the load has
two components:
 One can be associated with the power PR(t)
absorbed by the resistive component of the load
(Real power), and
 the other can be associated with the power PX(t)
absorbed by the reactive (inductive or
capacitive) component of the load (Reactive
Power).

70
 Complex Power
 For circuits operating in sinusoidal-steady-state, real
and reactive power are conveniently calculated from
complex power, defined below. V 
 Let the voltage across a circuit element be ,
I 
and the current into the element be . Then the
complex power S is the product of the voltage and the
conjugate of the current:
S VI V   I   VI     
* *

VI cos      jVI sin    

                 
P Q

where    
is the angle b/n the voltage
and current
S P  jQ
So S is recognized as
cos    
 P = real power
71
 Q= reactive power and Power factor
 The magnitude
S VI of the complex power S is
called the apparent power, it signifies the rating of
equipments (generators, Transformers, etc)
Relationships between real, reactive and complex power
P  S cos 
Q  S sin 

Example: A load draws 100 kW with a leading pf of 0.85.

What are  (power factor angle), Q and S ?
  -cos  1 0.85   31.8
100kW
S   117.6 kVA
0.85
Q  117.6sin(  31.8 )  62.0 kVar

72
  From these complex power expressions, the
following can be stated: PR 
V2
 A resistor absorbs
QR 0 (positive) real Rpower,
W, and zero2 reactive power,PL 0 var.
V
 An inductor
QL  absorbs zero real power,
X W,
L

and positive reactive power,

2
PC 0 var.
V
 A capacitor
Q 
C
X absorbs zero real power, W,
C 2
V
and negative reactive power, var.

X
C

 Alternatively, a capacitor delivers positive

reactive power, .
73
 Structures of power system
 Generation, transmission and distribution are the main
components of an electric power system
 The large network of conductors between the power
station and the consumers can be broadly divided into
two parts viz.,
 Transmission system and
 Primary transmission
 Secondary transmission
 Distribution system.
 Primary distribution system
 Secondary distribution system
 Transmission lines implies the bulk transfer of power by
high voltage links b/n main load centers
 Distribution system is mainly responsible for the
conveyance of this power to the consumers by means of
lower voltage networks
74
  Power Generation system:
 electric power (11 kV- 25 kV) is
produced by 3-phase alternators
 operating in parallel
 Conventional energy conversions
and Renewable resources
 The generation voltage is stepped
up to the main transmission voltage
 Power transmission system
 Primary and secondary
transmission
 AC/DC and HV/EHV
 Long, medium, short lines (sub
transmission systems )
 Double/single circuits
 On grid and off grid system
 In the range of 66kV to 400 kV
(higher)
75
  Power substation
 Connection b/n various components are made (e.g.
lines & transformers )
 Switching of these components are carried out
 Primary and secondary substations
 Indoor and outdoor substations
 Power distribution system
 Primary and secondary distribution system
(15kV/380V/220V)
 Arial and cable distribution system
 Radial and ring system
 Pole mounted and enclosure /indoor distribution
substation
 Public and industrial–MV/LV distribution system

76
77
 In USA transmission is at 345kV, 500kV and 765kV and
Britain, it is at 275kV and 400kV
 The network formed by these very high voltage lines is
sometimes called as the super grid. This grid, in turn, feeds
a sub transmission network operating at 132 kV or less
 In our country, networks operate at 400kV, 230kV, 132kV,
66kV, 45kV, 33kV or15kV and supply the final consumer
feeders at 380 volt three phase, giving 220 volt per phase
 The general structure or topology of the distribution
system is different and the number of branches and
sources is much higher
 Most of the distribution networks operate radially for less
short ckt current and better protective coordination
 A typical distribution system consists of a step down
transformer ( e.g. 132/15kV or 66/15kV or 33/15kV) at a
bulk supply point feeding a number of lines with varying
length from a few hundred meters to several kilometers
78
 Several three phase step down transformers, e.g.
15kV/380V are spaced along the feeders and from
these, three phase- four wire networks of
consumers are supplied which gives 220 V single
phase supply to houses and similar loads
 Figure below shows a typical distribution system

79
Reason for interconnection
 Generating stations and distribution systems are
connected through transmission lines
 The transmission system of a particular area (e.g.
state) is known as a grid
 Different grids are interconnected through tie-lines to
form a regional grid (also called power pools)
 Different regional grids are further connected to form a
national grid
 Interconnected operation is always economical and
reliable
 Economic advantage of interconnection is to reduce the reserve
generation capacity in each area
 If there is a sudden increase of load or loss of generation in one area,
it is possible to borrow power from adjoining interconnected area
 To meet sudden increases in load, a certain amount of generating
capacity ( in each area) known as the “spinning reserve” is required.
This consists of generators running at normal speed and ready to
80 supply power instantaneously
  Cooperative assistance is one of the planned benefits
of interconnected operation
 Interconnected operation also gives the flexibility to
meet unexpected emergency loads

81
 Introduction to Power Transformers, CTs & PTs
Power transformers
 A transformer is a static electrical device, involving no
continuously moving parts, used in electric power systems to
transfer power between circuits through the use of
electromagnetic induction.
 The term power transformer is used to refer to those
transformers used between the generator and the distribution
circuits, and these are usually rated at 500 kVA and above.
 Power systems typically consist of a large number of
generation locations, distribution points, and interconnections
within the system or with nearby systems, such as a
neighboring utility.
 The complexity of the system leads to a variety of transmission
and distribution voltages. Power transformers must be used at
each of these points where there is a transition between
voltage levels.
82
 Power transformers are available for step-up operation,
primarily used at the generator and referred to as
generator step-up (GSU) transformers, and for step-down
operation, mainly used to feed distribution circuits.
 Power transformers are available as single-phase or
three-phase apparatus.
 Transformers intended for indoor use are primarily of the
dry type but can also be liquid immersed.
 For outdoor use, transformers are usually liquid
immersed.
 Power transformers are very
efficient, typically 99.5% or
greater, i.e., real power
losses are usually less
than 0.5% of the kVA rating
at full load
83
 Instrument transformers
 Instrument Transformer (IT) - A high precision transformer designed
to provide input into measurement and/or control equipment
 In dc circuits for current and voltage measurement we use
ammeters and voltmeters.
 For measurement of high current ,it is usual to use low range
ammeter with suitable shunt.
 For measurement of high voltage, low range voltmeter are used
with high resistance connected in series.
 But for measurement of high A.C. current and voltage we cannot
use these methods.
 We use specially constructed instrument transformers.
 Instrument transformers are primarily used
 to provide isolation between the main primary circuit and the secondary
control and measuring devices. This isolation is achieved by
magnetically coupling the two circuits.
 besides to isolation, levels in magnitude are reduced to safer levels
 Instrument transformers are divided into two categories:
 current transformers (CT) and
 voltage transformers ( VT)
84
 Current Transformers (CTs)
 These are used with low range ammeter to measure
current in high voltage alternating circuits where it is not
practical to connect instrument and meters directly to
lines.
 An instrument transformer used to reflect a primary
current into a secondary current through a magnetic
medium.
 The primary winding of the CT is connected in series with
the ckt to be monitored and the secondary windings
proportionally transform the primary levels to typical
values.
 Current transformer is a step up transformer ( as the
voltage increases the current decreases).
 The current is step down in a known ratio called current
ratio
 Monitoring devices such as wattmeters, power-factor
meters, voltmeters, ammeters, and relays are often
85 connected to the secondary circuits.
 C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns of thick
wire connected in series with the line whose current
is to be measured
 The secondary consist of large number of turns of
fine wire, is connected across the ammeter
terminals

86
 If a current transformer has primary to secondary
current ratio of 100:5 then it step up the voltage
20 times and step down the current 1/20 times of
its actual value.
 If we know the current ratio I1/I2 and the reading of
a.c. ammeter, the current can be calculated.

 Current = ratio × ammeter reading

 Ammeter resistance is very low ,the current

transformer normally works short circuited.

 If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of

secondary winding then the secondary winding
must be short ckted with the help of short ckt
switch s.
87
 If this is not done, then due to high m.m.f. will set
up high flux in the core and it will produces
excessive core loss which produce heat and high
voltage across the secondary terminals

Hence the secondary of current transformer

is never left open.

88
 One of the most commonly used current
transformer is the one known as clamp-on or clip-
on type.
 it has a laminated core which is so arranged that it
can be opened out at hinged section by merely
pressing a trigger-like projection
 When the core is thus opened, it permits the
admission of very heavy current- carrying bus bars
or feeders whereupon the trigger is released and
the core is tightly closed by a spring.
 The current carrying conductor or feeder acts as a
single-turn primary whereas the secondary is
connected across the standard ammeter
conveniently mounted in the handle.

89
90
  Potential transformer
 A PT is a step down transformer having many primary
turns but few secondary turns.

 In step down the voltage decreases and current

increases, thus voltage can be easily measured by using
low range voltmeter.

 The voltage is stepped down in known ratio called

voltage ratio.
Construction
 A potential transformer has many primary windings but
few number of secondary windings that makes it step
down transformer.
 Voltmeter is connected to secondary winding usually
voltmeter of 150 v is suitable.
91
 Working
 Primary terminals are connected across the line to
which the voltage is to be measured.
 The voltmeter gives the transformed value of
voltage at secondary.
 The deflection of voltmeter when divided by
transformed ratio gives the actual voltage at
primary.
 Line voltage = deflection / trasf. Ratio
Where transformation ratio = V2/V1

92
  Precaution for P.T.
 Since the secondary of p.t. is connected to relays,
their ratings are usually 40 to 100 Watts.

 For safety purpose the secondary should be

completely insulated from the high voltage primary
and should be in addition grounded.

93
 Types of P.T.
 Some types of p.t. are
1. Shell type
2. Dry type
3. Oil type

Rating Type

below 5000 v Shell type

5000-13800 v Dry type and oil

type
above 13800 v only oil type

94
95
 Thank you

96