Reference Model: TCP/IP and OSI

Model
 Reference Model

• It is a conceptual layout mainly used to describe how the

communication between devices should occur.

• Two Models are there

1)OSI Model

2)TCP/IP Model
 OSI Model
• OSI-Open System Interconnection.
• Developed by ISO-International Organization for Standardization
in the year 1984.
• Deals with connecting open systems(i.e systems that are open for
communication with other systems).
• OSI model has seven layers
1)Physical Layer, 2) Data Link Layer, 3)Network Layer, 4)Transport
Layer, 5)Session Layer, 6)Presentation Layer, 7)Application Layer
OSI Model
 Application Layer
• Is the topmost layer of OSI Model.

• Enables the user to access the network. Applications produce data that has to be
transferred to the network.

• Contains variety of protocols that are needed by users. Widely used Protocol-
HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol).

• HTTP-Is a protocol used to access data on WWW.

• WWW(World Wide Web)-Is a collection of websites or webpages stored in

web severs and connected to the local system through internet.

• When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the
server hosting the page using HTTP. The server then sends the page back.
 Presentation Layer
• Is also known as translation layer.
• The data from application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network.
• Is responsible for
1)Translation
2)Compression
3)Encryption
Translation-The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-
dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine
changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
Compression-Reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data compression
becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video.
Encryption-Means that the sender transforms the original information to another form and
sends the resulting message out over the network.
 Session Layer
• Allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
• Offers various services like
1)Dialog Control
2)Token Management
3)Synchronization
Dialog Control-Allows two systems to start communication with each other either
in half duplex mode or in full duplex mode.
Token Management-Preventing the two parties from attempting the same critical
operations simultaneously.
Synchronization-Allows a process to add checkpoints to a stream of data. For
example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received
and acknowledged independently. If a crash happens during the transmission of
page 523, the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery are pages
501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.
 Transport Layer
• It accept data from session layer and split it up into smaller units if need be, pass
these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the
other end.
• The most popular type of transport connection is an error-free point-to-point
channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent.
• Also determines what type of service to provide to session layer and to the users
of the network.
• Other possible kinds of transport services are,
1)transporting of isolated messages with no guarantee about the order of delivery
2) broadcasting of messages to multiple destinations.
• Is a true end-to-end layer- it carries data all the way from the source to the
destination.
 Network Layer
• Controls the operation of Subnet.
• Design Issue-Is determining how packets are routed from source to destination.
Routing can be based on static tables and rarely changed.
• If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in one
another’s way, forming bottlenecks. Handling congestion is also a responsibility
of the network layer.
• When packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination,
many problems can arise. The addressing used by the second network may be
different from that used by the first one. The second one may not accept the
packet at all because it is too large. The protocols may differ, to overcome all
these problems, heterogeneous networks is to be interconnected.
 Data Link Layer
• Is responsible for the node to node delivery of data and also ensures error free
transmission of data.
• Other Responsibilities
1) Framing- The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.
2)Physical Addressing- If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or
receiver of the frame.
3)Flow Control- If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes
a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
 Data Link Layer

4) Error Control- The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a
mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is normally achieved
through a trailer added to the end of the frame.

5)Access Control- When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the
link at any given time.
 Physical Layer
• Is the lowest layer of OSI Model.
• Is responsible for actual physical connections between devices.
• Coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium.
• Also defines the direction of transmission between two devices: simplex, half-
duplex, or full-duplex.
• Also defines physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network. Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology, a star topology, a
ring topology, a bus topology, or a hybrid topology.
• The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media. In a
point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link.
In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
 Physical Layer

• Data Rate-Physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.

• Representation of Bits- The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits

(sequence of 0’s or 1’s). To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals-
electrical or optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding (how 0’s and
1’s are changed to signals).
 TCP/IP Layer
• Stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. It was designed
and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s.
• The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model. TCP/IP model has four
layers

1)Link Layer

2)Internet Layer

3)Transport Layer

4)Application Layer
 TCP/IP
• When TCP/IP is compared to OSI Model

1)Link layer is equivalent to the combination of physical and data link layer.

2)Internet layer is equivalent to network layer.

3)Transport layer is doing part of job of session layer.

4)Application layer is doing the job of session, presentation, and application layers.
• Is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, each of which provides
a specific functionality.
• The term hierarchical means that each upper-level protocol is supported by one or
more lower-level protocols.
 TCP/IP
• TCP –Is a communications standard that enables application programs and
computing devices to exchange messages over a network.

• IP- Is the method for sending data from one device to another across the internet.

• TCP/IP is a communication protocols used to interconnect network devices on

the internet.
 Link Layer

• Is the Lowest layer of TCP/IP Model.

• Describes how data should be physically generated and transmitted over the physical
medium by the network devices.

• TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It supports all the standard and
proprietary protocols.
 Internet Layer
• The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go.
• Widely used protocol is IP in turn supporting four protocols
1)ARP 2)RARP 3)IGMP 4)ICMP

IP- Internet Protocol. Is the transmission medium used by TCP/IP. It is responsible

for delivering packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP
addresses in the packet headers.

IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently.
 TCP/IP
Address Resolution Protocol
Is used to find the physical address of the node when its Internet address is known.
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
Allows a host to discover its Internet address when it knows only its physical address.
Internet Control Message Protocol
Is a protocol used to diagnose communication errors by performing error control
mechanism
Internet Group Message Protocol
Is used to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
 Transport Layer
• Is responsible for error-free, end-to-end delivery of data from the source host to the
destination host.
• Two end to end protocols are there
1)TCP 2)UDP
TCP-Is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating
on one machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the internet.
At the sending end , TCP divides a stream of data into smaller units called segments.
Each segment includes a sequence number for reordering after receipt, together with
an acknowledgment number for the segments received. Segments are carried across
the internet inside of IP datagrams. At the receiving end, TCP collects each datagram
as it comes in and reorders the transmission based on sequence numbers.
UDP-Is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCP’s
sequencing or flow control.
 Application Layer
• Is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
• This layer allows the user to interact with the application. It contain higher level protocols
like
1)HTTP(Hypertext Transfer Protocol). This protocol allows us to access the data over the
world wide web.
2)SNMP( Simple Network Management Protocol). It is a framework used for managing
the devices on the internet.
3)SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol). The TCP/IP protocol that supports the e-mail is
known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data to another
e-mail address.
4)FTP(File Transfer Protocol). Is a standard internet protocol used for transmitting the files
from one computer to another computer.
5)DNS(Domain Name System). Is a collection of databases that translate hostnames to IP
addresses.
6)RTP(Real Time Protocol)- Delivering real-time media such as voice or movies